#Article 1: Inglis leid (663 words)


Inglis () is a Wast Germanic leid that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kinricks o England an spread intae whit wis tae acome sooth-east Scotland unner the influence o the Anglian medieval kinrick o Northumbrie. Follaein the economic, poleetical, military, scienteefic, cultural, an colonial influence o Great Breetain an the Unitit Kinrick frae the 18t century, via the Breetish Empire, an o the Unitit States syne the mid-20t century, it haes been widely dispersed aroond the warld, acome the leadin leid o internaitional discourse, an haes acquired uise as lingua franca in mony regions. It is widely learnit as a seicont leid an uised as an offeecial leid o the European Union an mony Commonwealth kintras, as well as in mony warld organisations. It is the third maist natively spoken leid in the warld, efter Mandarin Cheenese an Spaingie.

Historically, Inglish originatit frae the fusion o leids an dialects, noo collectively kent as Auld Inglis, whilk wur brocht tae the eastren coast o Great Breetain bi Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) settlers beginnin in the 5t century – wi the wird Inglis bein derived frae the name o the Angles. A significant nummer o Inglis wirds are constructit based on roots frae Latin, acause Latin in some form wis the lingua franca o the Christian Kirk an o European intellectual life. The leid wis faur influenced bi the Auld Norse leid wi Viking invasions in the 8t an 9t centuries.

The Norman conquest o Ingland in the 11t century gae rise tae hivy borrowins frae Norman-French, an vocabulary an spelling conventions began tae gie the superficial appearance o a close relationship wi Romance leids tae whit haed noo acome Middle Inglis. The Great Vowel Shift that began in the sooth o Ingland in the 15t century is ane o the historical events markin the separation o Middle an Modern Inglis.

Awin tae the significant assimilation o various European leids throughoot historie, modren Inglis is aften seen as haein a gey muckle vocabulary. The Oxford Inglis Dictionary leets ower 250,000 distinct wirds, an daes nae include mony technical or slang terms, or wirds that belang tae multiple wird classes.

The name Inglis comes frae the pairt o Germany an Denmark cried Angeln.
The spellin Inglis is a leeterar archaism frae aulder Scots that enthusiasts is gey fond o. It wis sount  (cf. Scottis), wi time the is wis cuttit tae s an the modren ootcome wis  that can be seen in the faimly name wi the mair mensefu modren spellin Ingles. Maist fowk the nou says , English, tho some fowk scrieves Inglish fir fear that fowk micht soond the foregaun wrang. Mony fowk soonds Inglis  efter the English soond-tae-letter spellin.

Modern Inglis, sumtimes descrived as the first global lingua franca, is the dominant leid or in some instances even the required internaitional leid o communications, science, information technology, business, aviation, entertainment, radio an diplomacy. Its spread ayont the Breetish Isles began wi the growthe o the Breetish Empire, an bi the late 19t century its reach wis truly global. Follaein the Breetish colonisation o North Americae, it acame the dominant leid in the Unitit States an in Canadae. The growin economic an cultural influence o the US an its status as a global superpouer syne Warld War II hae significantly acceleratit the leid's spread across the planet.

A wirkin ken o Inglis haes acome a requirement in a number o fields, occupations an professions sic as medicine an computin; as a consequence ower a billion fowk speak Inglis tae at least a basic level (see Inglis leid learnin an teachin). It is ane o sax offeecial les o the Unitit Nations.

Ane impact o the growthe o Inglis haes been tae reduce native linguistic diversity in mony pairts o the warld, an its influence continues tae play an important role in leid attrition. Conversely the naitural internal variety o Inglis alang wi creoles an pidgins hae the potential tae produce new distinct leids frae Inglis ower time.




#Article 2: Scots leid (1415 words)


Scots (or Lallans, English translationlowlands or Scots; lawland Scots, ) is a  West Germanic leid o the Anglic varietie that's spaken on the Lawlands o Scotland an en tha stewartrie o Ulster en Ireland (whaur it's kent as Ulster-Scots, Scotch, or Ullans). En maist airts, it is spaken anent tha an Inglis leid.

Up til tha 15t yeirhunder Scottis (modern furm Scots) wis the name o th' Gallic, the Celtic leid o th' aunshint Scots. Thaim that bruikit Scots cried tha Gaelic Erse (meinin Irish). Tha Gallic o Scotland is noo maistly cried the Scots Gallic an is yit spaken bi sum en tha westernScots Hielands an ilands. Fur tha maist pairt, Scots originatit fae tha Northumbrian variety o Anglo-Saxon (Auld Inglis), tho wi a meikle influence fae th' Auld Norse o th' Vikings, th' Dutch an law Saxon thro troke wi (an incummers fae) tha law kintras, an tha Romance  fae itse uise in the Kirk an' legal Latin, Anglo-Norman an possibly Pairisian French cause o th' Auld Alliance.

Anglian spikkers wir weil staiblisht in sooth-eist Scotland bi tha 7t yeirhunder. In tha 13t yeirhunder Norman launainers an thair reteiners, speakin Northumbrian Middil Inglis, war bade tae cum an sattil bi tha King. Scots kyth'd fer tha first tym en scrieved form en tha mids o tha 14t yeirhunder an didnae differ mukkil fae ither northren Inglis byleids. Th' Anglian leid o Scotland gra an its ain sinsyn. Bi tha lat 15t yeirhunder tha sicht fowk haed o tha differs wi tha leid spaken faurder sooth cam til tha fore an Scots-spikkin Scots begoud tae crie thair leid Scots. Scots haes lend-wirds fae tha fak thit tha Scots fowk haed contak wi Gaelic spikkers. Thair lend-wirds is fer ordinair anerlì fer geographical an cultural hings, sik as clan an loch. Lyk onì leivin leid, Scots haes chynged ae bittie ower tha yeirs, tho hit haes arguablì stey'd naurer til its Anglo-Saxon springheid than Inglis. Monie Scots wirds hae becum pairt o the Inglis ava: flit, greed, eerie, cuddle, clan, stob.

En Scotland's census o 2011, ae speir on Scots wis speired.

Monie writers nou evyts apostrofies whaur thay ar thocht tae shaw letters thit's missin fae Inglis (the apologeteec apostrophe). Sikna letters niver wer missin en Scots at aw. Fur exemple, en the twalt yeirhunder, Barbour spelt the Scots cognate o taken as 'tane'. Haein been nae k en the wird fer mair nor 700 yeir, shawin the want o't wi aen apostrofie coud be caa'd specious. The modren speelin is for ordinair 'taen'. Vouel nummers is fae Aitken n the foneteecs is en IPA. Maugre the establisht tradeetional speelin conventions descrived ablo, durin the twantiet centuair ae wheen o propones fer speelin reform wis pitten forrit. Commentin on sicweys, John Corbett (2003: 260) writes thit devisin ae normativ ortografee fer Scots haes been waen o the grattest linguestic hobbies o the past centuair. N writin aneat the affcome o thon en Lallans 57, Caroline Macafee merkit that speelin reform haes had the effeck o caain doun the kynd-o-a staudartisation that aareadie exeestit n that Speelin haes gotten tae be ae free-fer-aw, wi the tradeetional model bemeanit, n nae populair replacement leadin til mair speelin variation, nae less.

Maist consonants is fer ordinair soondit sic n sae as en Inglis bit:

Fer ae histereecal luikower see the Phonologeecal histerie o Scots.

The vouel seestem o Scots (in IPA):

En Scots, vouel length is fer ordinair condeetiont bi the Scots Vouel Lenth Rule. Wirds that differ jist ae bittie en soondin fae Scots Ingils is fer ordinair spelt aes en Ingils. Ither wirds micht be spelt the same wa bit differ en soondin, fer ensaumple: aunt, swap, want n wash wi , bull, full v. n pull wi , bind, find n wind v., etc. wi .

The is bruikit afore the names o saisons, days o the week, monie nouns, illnesses, tredds, occupations, sciences n acadeemic subjeks. It's aften bruikit in stead o the indefinit airtikil n instad o a possesseev pronoun n aw: the hairst, the Wadensday, awa til the kirk, the nou, the dei, the haingles, the Laitin, The deuk ett the bit breid, the wife etc.

Nouns fer ordinair eiks –(e)s fer the plural bit some irraigulair plurals kith: ee/een, cauf/caur, horse/horse, cou/kye, shae/shuin.
Nouns o meisur an quantitie byds the same en the plural fower fit, twa mile, five pund, three hunnerwecht.
Raigular plurals incluid laifs, leafs, shelfs n wifes, etc.

Dimeenuteeves wi –ie, burnie (wee burn), feardie/feartie, gamie, kiltie, postie, wifie, rhodie, an wi ock, bittock, playock, sourock n Northren –ag, bairnag (wee bairn), Cheordag, -ockie, hooseockie, wifeockie, baith is influenced bi the Scots Gaelic dimeenuteeve -ag.

The modal verbs mey, ocht tae, an sall isna aften bruikit in Scots n this is histereec, bit is whiles still foond in anglifie'd leeterair Scots. Can, shid, n will/wul is the prefer'd Scots maks. 
Scots employs doobel modal maks He'll no can cum the day, A micht cud cum the morn, A uised tae cud dae hit, but no nou.

The praisent tense o verbs ends en –s en aw persons n nummers cept whan a singil personal pronoun is nex til the verb, Thay say he's ower wee, Thaim that says he's ower wee, Thir lassies says he's ower wee etc. Thay'r cummin an aw bit Five o thaim's cummin, The lassies? Thay'v went bit Ma brakes haes went. Thaim that cums first is ser'd first. The trees growes green en the simmer.

Wis micht can tak the steid o war, but na widdershins: Ye were/wis thaur.

The raigulair past form o the verb is –(i)t or –(e)d, gaun bi the aforegaun consonant or vouel hurtit, skelpit, Mendit, kent/kenned, cleant/cleaned, skreived, telt/tauld, dee'd. Some verbs haes kenspeakle maks greet/grat/grutten, fesh/fuish/fuishen, lauch/leuch/lauchen, gae/gaed/gane, gie/gied/gien, pit/pat/pitten, git/gat/gotten.

Scots aften haes tha wird order He turnt oot tha licht an na He turnt tha licht oot an Gie me hit an na Gie hit til me.

Antrin verbs is aften uised progressive He wis thinkin he wad tell her, He wis wantin tae tell her.

Verbs o motion micht be drappit afore aen adverb or adverb phrases o motion Ah'm awa til ma bed, That's me awa hame, Ah'll intil tha hoose an see him.

Partecipils gaes til tha end o tha clause mair aften than in Inglis whaur chynge o state is impleid (pairtéculair in Ulster): He's awfu auld gettin, Ah hae ma siller chynged.

Ordinal nummers ends wi –t seicont, fowert, fift, saxt etc. first, Thrid/third.

Adverbs fer ordinair taks the same mak aes the verb ruit or adjecteeve specialie efter verbs. Haein ae real guid day. She's gey fauchelt.
Adverbs is shaped wi –s, -lies, lins, gate(s) an wey(s) – whyls, mebbes, brawlies, geylies, aiblins, airselins, hauflins, hidlins, maistlins, awgates, ilkagate, oniegate, ilkawey, onywey(s), endweys, fit weys.

Verbless subordinate clauses is brocht en wi, n pittin ower surpreese or skunner She haed tae walk the hale length o the road n her sieven month pregnant, He telt me tae rin n me wi ma sair leg.

Negation is pitten ower bi bruikin the adverb na, en the North Eist nae, as in Ah'm na cummin, or bi bruikin the suffix –na (soondin lippens oan byleid), aes in A dinnae ken, Thay canna cum n We coudna hae telt him. 
The uiss wi na is fer ordinair taen foreby –na wi contractabil auxiliair verbs lyk –ll fer will, or en ay nae speirins wi onie auxiliair He'll na cum n Did he na cum?

The reelateeve pronoon is that (#39;at is anither mak borraed fae the Norse bit hit can cum aboot bi contraction) fer aw persons n nummers, bit micht be drappit Thaur's na monie fowk (that) byds en that glen. The anglifie'd maks wha, wham, whase, n the auld-farrant whilk is j ist leeterair pensfuness; whilk is alanerlie bruikit eftir ae statement He said he'd tint hit, whilk wis na whit we wantit tae hear. The possesseeve cums aboot bi eikin s or bi bruikin aen appropriate pronoon The wifie that's hoose gat burnt, the wumman that her dochter gat mairit; the men that thair boat wis tint.

The thrid adjecteeve/adverb yon/yonder, thon/thonder pynts oot sommit that's faur fae the speaker n the leestener, D'ye see yon/thon hoose ower yonder/thonder? The plurals o this n that is thae n thir. Northren byleids taks this n that fer the plural ava.

Scots haes monie hamelt leids, or byleids. Thir include;




#Article 3: Scots Gaelic (459 words)


The Scots Gaelic leid () is a Goidelic, Celtic leid an ane o the aulder leids o Scotland.

It is a Q-Celtic leid that's spak in the northren pairt o Scotland (the Hielands an Islands), an abreed in Canadae (Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia). It is sib tae the Erse an the Manx Gaelic, an tae the Welsh, Cornish an Breton forby.

It wis spak in maist o the Lawlands an aw, as can be seen bi literature an place names:

Thare wis a kinrick in Ulster haurd forenenst the coast richt alang bi the Giant's Causey cried Dalriada wi a wheen o warriors cried the Scots.

The Scots invaded an settlet in Argyll an brocht thair leid wi them. The Gaelic leid replaced the Pechtish leid athort Scotland wi the help o the Gaelic speakin kirk an the unification o Scotland. (See History o Scotland forby). In the 1700s, Gaelic wis the main written an spaken leid o the Hielands but was confined to that pairt o Scotland. 

The first translate o the Bible intae Scots Gaelic wisna makkit til 1767 whan Dr James Stuart o Killin an Dugald Buchanan o Rannoch shapit a translate o the New Testament. Gey few European leids hae makkit the transition tae a modren leeterar leid athoot an early modren translate o the Bible. Gaelic no haein sic a translate til the late aichteent century nae doubt contreibutit tae the decline o Scots Gaelic.

The day, it is spoken anerly bi aboot 60,000 fowk in Scotland an aiblins 1,000–2,000 in Nova Scotia, Canadae. Anerly the Wastren Isles o Scotland hae mair fowk that can speak the leid nor no (61% o the fowk speak Gaelic). The place in Scotland wi the muckle maist percentage o Scots Gaelic speakers is a clachan cried Barvas on the Isle o Lewis. Here, 74.7% o the fowk speak the langage. Mony fowk are stairtin tae lear the leid.

Scots Gaelic is gey close tae Erse an Manx, the ither Goidelic leids an thur written forms are whiles e'en mutually inteligible tae ilka ither.

The Pechts wis in whit is nou Scotland lang afore the Scots or Scotland, an acause o this Scots Gaelic haes some o thair tongue in it. Wirds the likes o Ben (Heid/Peak) an Aber (Gub o a muckle river) gies us a keek at whit the aulder leid o Scotland. Ben an Aber is niver foond in the Erse but are in the Welsh, Cornish an Breton forby.

Syne the 16t-centurie, thar increasin uiss o Scots an Scots hank on Gaelic; acause o the Statutes o Iona (1609) an the Scuilin Act (1616), mony Hieland Gaels wis gart to gang tae the Lallans an learn Inglis (then the term fae Lallans Scots).




#Article 4: Scotland (1187 words)


Scotland () is a kintra in nor'-wast Europe, an is ane o the fower kintras that maks the Unitit Kinrick. It taks up the northren thrid o the Breetish island. Scotland haes til its sooth the laund o England, an is bund bi the German Ocean til the east an the Atlantic Ocean til the north an wast.

Scotland wis ance a free kinrick, but syne  gaed intil a union wi England in 1603, whan Jeams VI o Scotland becam Jeams I o England efter the deith o Elspeth I. This union wis makkit formal on 1 Mey 1707 bi the Treaty o Union. The Scots Pairlament wis gotten rid o on 26 Mairch. The union southert baith kinricks, makkin the Kinrick o Great Breetain, wi a new single Pairlament haudden in Wastmeenster, Lunnon, but some pairts o Scotland's institutions, merkit the laund's naitional kirk an scuilin an legal seestems, wis hauden apairt. In 1801, Scotland becam ane o the three launds o the Unitit Kinrick, alang wi England an Ireland (nou juist Northren Ireland). Wales is nou seen for uisual as anither laund, awtho it wis juist a principality o the kinrick o England in 1707.

In 1997, the Scots fowk voted tae hae a new pairlament, estaiblisht by the UK government in the Scotland Act 1998. The nou devolved Scots Pairlament haes been gien the pouer tae govern the laund on maist Scots maiters, but haesna ower muckle pouer wi taxes, awtho it dis hae the pouer tae chynge the UK income tax rate bi 3p in the pund.

Scotland's size is maistly that estaiblisht by the 1237 Treaty o York atween Scotland an England an the 1266 Treaty o Perth atween Scotland an Norawa. Exceptions is the Isle o Mann, that is nou a croun dependency ootwi the Unitit Kinrick, Orkney an Shetland, that is nou Scots raither nor Dens, an Berwick, that wis defined as subject til the laws o England by the 1746 Wales an Berwick Act.

The patron saunt o Scotland is Saunt Andra, an St. Andra's Day is on 30 November but it haesna been celebrate muckle syne the Reformation.

The wird Scot wis taen frae the Laitin an its uiss micht weel date fae aboot the first hauf o the 10t century, whan it first kythed in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle an harkent til the Laund o the Gaels, analogous til the Laitin Scotia. The ither name is Caledonie, that's gien tae some pairts o the New Warld an colonies, like New Caledonia. Scots kings adoptit the teetle Basileus/Rex Scottorum (= Hie King/King o the Gaels, basileus meanin sovereign in the Greek, an rex meanin king in the Laitin) an Rex Scotiae (King o Gael-Land) sometime in the 11t century, likely swee'd by the style Imperator Scottorum kent tae hae been uised bi Brian Bóruma in Ireland in 1005. In modren times the wird Scot is uised equaly for aw indwallers nae maiter wha thair forebeirs wis. This is acause the kintra haess haed a ceevic raither nor a single kin orientation for maist o the last thoosand year.

 

Repeated glaciations, that kivered the hale laund-mass o modren Scotland, hae malafoustered ony traces that micht hae existit o bodies bidin thare afore the Mesolithic period. It is thocht that the first post-glacial groups o hunter-gaitherers wan til Scotland aboot 12,800 year syne, as the ice sheet retreated efter the last glaciation. Groups o sattlers begoud biggin the first kent permanent hooses on Scots syle aroond 9,500 year aby, an the first clachans around 6,000 year syne. The weel-presered clachan o Skara Brae on the Mainlaund o Orkney dates frae this period. Neolithic habitation, buirial an reetual steids is in parteecular common an weel-presered in the Northren Isles an Wastren Isles, whaur want o trees led tae maist structurs bein biggit wi local stane.

 The written protohistory o Scotland begoud wi the in comin o the Roman Empire in soothren an central Great Breetain, whan the Romans occupied whit is nou Ingland an Wales, administerin it as a province cried Britannia. Roman invasions an occupations o soothren Scotland war a series o brief interludes. In 83ndash;4 AD the general Gnaeus Julius Agricola defeated the Caledonians at the battle o Mons Graupius, an Roman forts war briefly set alang the Gask Ridge naur tae the Hieland line (nane are kent tae hae been constructed ayont that line). Three year efter the battle the Roman airmies haed resiled tae the Soothren Uplands. Thay pit up Hadrian's Waw for tae haud in the tribes on baith sides o the waw, an the Limes Britannicus becam the northren laundmairch o the empire, awtho the airmy hauden on tae the Antonine Waw in the Central Lawlands for twa short periodsmdash;the hindmaist o thaim wis durin the time o Emperor Septimius Severus frae 208 till 210. The extent o Roman military occupation o ony significant pairt o Scotland wis limited tae a total o aboot 40 year, awtho thair influence on the soothren section o the kintra occupeed by Brythonic tribes sic as the Votadini an Damnonii wad still hae been considerable.

In 1603, James VI Keeng o Scots inherited the throne o the Kinrick o Ingland, an becam Keeng James I o Ingland, an left Edinburgh for Lunnon. Apairt frae a short period unner the Protectorate, Scotland steyed a sinder state, but there wis guid puckle conflict atween the croun an the Covenanters ower the form o kirk government. Efter the Glorious Revolution, the abolition o episcopacy an the dingin doun o the Roman Catholic James VII by William an Mary, Scotland briefly shored tae wale a different Protestant monarch frae Ingland. In 1707, the Scots Pairlament an the Pairlament o Ingland enacted the twin Acts o Union that led tae Scotland's formal incorporation intae the Kinrick o Great Breetain.
The deponed Jacobite Stuart claimants haed steyed popular in the Hielands an nor'east, in parteecular amangst non-Presbyterians. Houaniver, twa major Jacobite uprisings launched in 1715 an 1745 failt tae remuive the Hoose o Hanover frae the Breetish throne. The threat o the Jacobite muivement tae the Unitit Kinrick an its monarchs effectively ended at the Battle o Culloden, Great Breetain's last pitched battle. This defeat paved the wey for lairge-scale remuivals o the indwallers o the Hielands an Islands, kent as the Hieland Clearances.

The Scots Enlightenment an the Industrial Revolution makkit Scotland intae an intellectual, commercial an industrial pouerhoose. Efter Seicont Warld Weir, Scotland experienced an industrial decline that wis parteecular severe. Anerly in raicent decades haes the kintra enjoyed something o a cultural an economic renaissance. Economic factors that hae contribute tae this recovery include a resurgent financial services industry, electronics manufacturin, (see Silicon Glen), an the German Ocean ile an gas industry.  

Follaein a referendum on devolution proposals in 1997, the Scotland Act 1998  wis passed by the Unitit Kinrick Pairlament for tae estaiblish a devolved Scots Pairlament.

Scotland haes mair nor 790 ilands, whilk ar sindert intil fower groups: Shetland, Orkney, an the Hebrides, whilk ar sub-dividit intil the Inner Hebrides an Ooter Hebrides, the ail o Mull isnae ti be forgotten.




#Article 5: Edinburgh (1454 words)


Edinburgh (Ulster Scots: Eedinburra, Scots Gaelic: Dùn Èideann; whiles cried Embra, Embro or Edinburrie an aw) is the caipital city o Scotland, an is the kintra's seicont mucklest city efter Glesga, that is 45 mile (72 km) tae the wast. It is the seivent mucklest city in the Unitit Kinrick. Edinburgh is ane o Scotland's 32 local govrenment cooncil areas (see: City o Edinburgh) - this cooncil area includes urban Edinburgh an a 30 sq mile (78 sq km) landwaird area. In the census o 2001, thare wis 448,625 indwallers.

Locatit in the sooth-east o Scotland, Edinburgh is on the east coast o Scotland's Central Belt, alang the Firth o Forth, nearby the North Sea. Due tae its ruggit settin, muckle gaitherin o stane Medieval an Georgian airchitectur, it is aften thocht o (wi Venice an Prague) as ane o the three bonniest cities in the hale o Europe.

It haes been the caipital city syne aboot 1437 (replacin Pairth), an is the hame o the Scots Pairlament. The city wis ane o the heidmaist centres o the Enlichtenment, led bi the Varsity o Edinburgh, an sic thinkers as Dauvit Hume, Adam Smith, James Hutton an mony ithers, giein it the byname The Athens o the North. The Auld Toun an New Toun o Edinburgh wis leetit as a UNESCO Warld Heritage Steid in 1995. The city haes mair nor 4500 listit biggins.

The oreigin o ceety's name in Scots is unnerstuid tae come frae the Brythonic Din Eidyn (Fort o Eidyn) frae the time whan it wis a Gododdin braefort. In the first century the Romans recordit the Votadini as a Brythonic tribe or kinrick i the aurie, an aboot AD 600 the poem Y Gododdin, uisin the Brythonic mak o thon name, descreives werriours feastin in Eidin's great haw.

It cam tae be kent bi the Bernician Angles as Edin-burgh. Sum fowk syne jaloused this wis taen frae the Anglo-Saxon for Edwin's Fort, wi a reference tae the 7t century king Edwin o Northumbrie. Houane'er, syne the name appeiringly predates King Edwin, this isna gey likely ava. The burgh pairt means fortress or wawed curn o biggins - i.e. a toun or ceity, an is sib tae the German burg an the Laitin parcus. Burgh is jist an owersettin o the Brythonic Din; Edin is untranslatit.

The ceety haes the byname Auld Reekie acause whan the biggins wis heatit bi coal an wid ingles, lums wad boak oot muckle colums o thick black reek intae the air.

Sum haes cried Edinburgh the Athens o the North an Auld Greekie efter its intellectual history, an for its topography, wi the Auld Toun o Edinburgh performin a seimilar role tae the Athenian Acropolis. Edinburgh is an aa kent bi twa-thrie Laitin names; Aneda, Edina (that crops up in leeteratur, sic as that o Burns or Fergusson) or Edinensis (that can be seem on monie eddicational biggins).

Edinburgh haes an aa been kent as Dunedin, taen frae the Gaelic Dùn Èideann. Dunedin in New Zealand wis oreiginally cried New Edinburgh an is still gied the byname the Edinburgh o the South. Ben Jonson descreivit it as Britain's ithir ee, an Walter Scott cried it yon Empress o the North.

Main airticle: Auld Toun, Edinburgh

The Auld Toun haes preservit its medieval lay-oot an monie Reformation-era biggins. Ane end is closed bi the Edinburgh Castle an the main gate, the Royal Mile, leads awa frae it (wee closes an wynds gang aff the Royal Mile dounhill on aither side o the main spine in a herrinbane patren). Lairge squares merk whaur merkets wis aince locate an surroond public biggins sic as Saunt Giles Cathedral an the Law Courts. Ithir notable places nearhaun include the Royal Museum o Scotland, Surgeons' Haw an the McEwan Haw. The street lay-oot is teipical o the aulder pairts o monie northren European ceities, an whuar the castle sits on the tap o a rocky crag (the remains o a deid volcano) the Royal Mile rins doun the crest o a rig frae it.

Due tae space restrictions gied bi the narraness o the tail (aidit bi the biggin o the Flodden Waw efter 1513), the Auld Toun becam hame tae sum o the eirliest heich rise residential biggins. Monie-flaired dwallins kent as lands wis ordinar frae the 1500s onwawrds wi ten an eleiven flairs bein teipical an ane e'en raxed tae fowerteen flairs. Eikit tae this, monie vaults ablo gate level wis bydit in bi the muckle influx o immigrants durin the Industrial Revolution. Thir still gie tift tae auld-threips o an unnergrun ceity.

Main airticle: New Toun o Edinburgh

The New Toun wis an 18t century solution tae the fyke o the mair an mair croudit Auld Toun. The ceity haed remainit gey compack, confinit tae the rig rinnin doun frae the castle. In 1766, a competeetion tae design the New Toun wis won bi James Craig, a 22 year auld airchitect. The plan that wis bigged creatit a rigid, reddit grid, that fittit weil wi enlichtenment norries o rationality. The heidmaist gate wis tae be George Street, that folloaes the naitural rig tae the north o the Auld Toun. Aither side o it is the ithir main gates o Princes Street an Queen Street. Princes Street haes synesen becam the heidmaist shoppin street in Edinburgh, an no monie Georgian biggins survive on it. Jynin thir gates thegithir is a series o perpendicular gates. At the eist an wast ends is St Andrew Sqaure an Charlotte Square respecteivly. The hinmaist wis designed bi Robert Adam an aften thocht o as ane o the brawest Georgian squares in the wurld. Bute Hous, the offeical dwallin o the First Meenister o Scotland, is on the north side o Charlotte Square.

Sittin in the glen atween the Auld an New Touns wis the Nor Loch, that haed aince been the ceity's watter supply an place for horsin awa keich an ithir rubbish. Bi the 1820s it wis drained. Sum plans shaw that a canal wis ettled, but Princes Street Gairdens wis creatit insteid. Left ower eirth frae the makkin o the biggins wis horsed in the loch, makkin whit's nou The Mound. In the mid 19t century the Naitional Gallery o Scotland an the Royal Scottish Academy Building wis bigged on The Mound, an weems tae Waverley Station driven throu it.

The New Toun wis sae successfou that it wis extendit greaty. The grid patren wisna haudit tae, but raither a mair picturesque lay-oot wis creatit. The day the New Toun is thocht o bi monie tae be ane the best ensamples o Georgian airchitecture an plannin in the wurld.

A popular residential pairt o the ceity is its sooth side, made up o a nummer o airts includin St Leonards, Marchmont, Haymerket, Polwarth, Newington, Sciennes, The Grange, Bruntsfield, Morningside an Merchiston. Sooth side is braidly the samen as the aurie kivvered bi the Burgh Muir, an becam mair popular efter the apenin o the Sooth Brig. Thir auries is specially popular wi faimilies (monie weil-regairdit state an private schuills is locate thare), students (the Central Varsity o Edinburgh campus is based aroun George Square jist north o Marchmont an the Meadows, an Napier Varsity haes muckle campuses aroun Merchiston an Morningside), an wi festival-gaers.

Leith is the sea-port o Edinburgh. It still hauds a seperate identity frae Edinburgh, an it wisna weil thocht o thare whan, in 1920, the burgh o Leith wis jyned wi Edinburgh. E'en the day the pairlamentary seat at Westminster is kent as Edinburgh North an Leith. Wi the redevelopin o Leith, Edinburgh haes won the business o a nummer o cruise liner companies that nou gie cruises tae Norrowey, Swaden, Denmark, Germany an the Netherlands. Leith an aa haes the Royal Yacht Britannia, berthit ahint the Ocean Terminal as weil as bein hame tae Hibernian Fitbaw Club.

Edinburgh is weil-kent for the annual Edinburgh Festival, a gaitherin o offeicial an unthirled festivals haulden ilka year ower aboot fower week in early August. The nummer o vaigers attractit tae Edinburgh for the Festival is aboot the samen as the settled population o the ceity. The maist kenspeckle o thir events is the Edinburgh Frings (the lairgest performin airts festival in the wurld), the Edinburgh Comedy Festival (the lairgest comedy festival in the wurld), the Edinburgh Military Tattoo, the Edinburgh Internaitional Film Festival an the Edinburgh Internaitional Beuk Festival.

Ithir notable events include the Hogmanay street pairty an Burns Nicht an St. Andra's Day an aa hae events merkin thaim. The ceety is ane Europe's heidmaist tourist destinations, breingin in 13 million veisitor ilka year, an efter Lunnon is the seicond maist veisatit tourist destination in the Unitit Kinrick.




#Article 6: Scots Pairlament (770 words)


The Scots Pairlament (Scottish Parliament in the Ingles; Pàrlamaid na h-Alba in the Gaelic) is the devolved legislatur o Scotland. The oreeginal Scots Pairlament, or Estatis of Scotland, wis elidit in 1707 bi the Act o Union, giein wey tae the new-foundit Pairlament o Great Breetain. The new Scots Pairlament wis establisht in 1999 unner the Scotland Act 1998, an the first gaitherin wis on the 12 May, 1999. It can legislate on aw maiters binna thaim that's pitten by for the UK Pairlament in Wastmeenster, an haes the pouer tae mak Scots laws an chynge the level o income tax peyed bi Scots ceetizens.

The Scots Pairlament wis estaiblisht in 1999 for tae debate maiters an mak laws for Scotland. It is made up o 129 electit bodies that’s kent as Members o the Scots Pairlament or MSPs. MSPs is electit wi a kind o proportional representation cryed the Addeetional Member Seestem. Awbody haes twa votes and awbody is representit bi aicht MSPs (ae constituency MSP an seiven regional MSPs).

Afore the Treaty o Union 1707 unitit the Kinrick o Scotland an the Kinrick o Ingland intae a new state cawed Great Breetain, Scotland haed an independent pairliament kent as the Pairlament o Scotland. Thare war Scots proposals in the discoorse tae stairt wi ower the Union suggestin thit a devolved Pairliament sud bide in Scotland, but this wisna acceptit bi the Inglis negotiators.

Fur the neist three hunder year, Scotland wis guverned direct bi the Pairlament o Great Breetain an the follaein Pairliament of the Unitit Kinrick, baith based at Wastmeenster, an no hivin a Parliament of Scotland steyed an important pairt o Scots national identity. Suggestions fur a 'devolved' Pairliament wis pitten forrit afore 1914, but wis pitten aff acause o the ootbrak o the First Warld War. As nationalism grew in Scotland durin the late 1960s, demands fur some form o hame rule or fou unthrildom wis pitten forrit, an in 1969 made the umwhile Labour guvrenment heidit bi Harold Wilson tae set up the Kilbrandon Commission tae conseeder the Breetish constitution. Ane o the heid objectives o the commission wis tae leuk intae weys o giein mair sel-govrenment tae Scotland, in the unitary state o the Unitit Kinrick. Kilbrandon pat oot his report in 1973 recommendin the stairtin up o a Scots Assembly electit direct tae manage maist hame Scots affairs.

Durin this time, diskiverin ile in the North Sea an the It's Scotland's ile campaign frae the Scots Naitional Party (SNP) pitten oot suin efter rose support fur Scottish unthrildom, as weel as the SNP. The pairty threapit thit the Scotland didnae see sae muckle benefit fae ile revenues as thay sud. Thir effects o the events pitten thegither gart Prime Meenister Wilson commeet thit his guvrenment pit oot some form o a devolved body in 1974. Unner the Scotland Act 1978, an electit assembly wad be set up in Embro gin the public wis fur it it in a referendum hauden on the 1 Mairch 1979. A narrae feck o 51.6% tae 48.4% voted fur a Scots Assembly, but the Act wis needin at least 40% o the hale electorate vote fur the proposal an aw. Acause the turnoot wis juist 63.6%, the vote fur it representit juist 32.9% o the population alloud tae vote, an the Assembly wisnae set up.

Throu the 1980s an 1990s, demand fur a Scots Pairliament grew, pairtly acause the Untit Kinrick govrenment wis controlled bi the Conservative Pairty, while Scotland itsel electit gey few Conservative MPs relative tae Wastmeenster. Efter the 1979 referendum defeat, the Campaign fur a Scots Assembly wis stairtit as a pressure group, leadin tae the 1989 Scots Constitutional Convention wi sindry organisations siclike as Scots kirks, poleetical pairties an fowk representin industry takkin pairt. Pittin oot its blueprint fur devolution in 1995, the Convention gied the maist pairt o the basis fur the structur o the Pairlament.

Devolution continued tae be pairt o the Labour platform thit wan pouer unner Tony Blair in May 1997. In September 1997, the Scots devolution referendum wis pitten tae the Scots electorate an siccart a feck fur the estaiblishment fur a new devolved Scots Pairlament, wi pouers tae chynge tax levels, in Embro. A election wis hauden on the 6 Mey 1999, an on the 1 Julie o thon year pouer wis pitten ower frae Westminster tae the new Pairlament.

Guvrenment pairties denotit wi bullets (•)

The Pairlament elects fae amang its members its Preses (Presiding Officer in the Ingles) tae preside ower the gaitherins o the Pairlament. It elects the First Meenister o Scotland as weel.




#Article 7: Glesga (1249 words)


Glesga (; ) is Scotland's lairgest ceetie an the third lairgest ceetie o the Unitit Kinrick. It is fund on the River Clyde in the wast-mids o Scotland. Fowk in the wast o Scotland ken it as Glesga or Glesca an folk fae the east maistly caw it Glesga or Glasgae.

The Ceetie o Glesga is kent as the caipital o commerce fur Scotland. It's a awfy thrang cosmopolitan European ceetie. It haes a population o 1,700,000 fowk, doun fae its 1960s heichness o 2.1 million, this's maistly doon tae owerskail o fowks intil new touns lik East Kirkbride an Cummernaud.

The name o the ceetie comes fae glas cöü in the Cumbric leid (an auld Brythonic celtic leid.) The modren name fur the ceetie in Gaelic Glaschu, meanin grein howe or dear grein steid whit haes bein aftin misquotit as a Gaelic owersettin fur the ceetie, but this wis actually Daniel Defoe's ootlinin o the ceetie whan he came in e 18th century; he haed quo thit Glesga wis the cleanest and beautifullest, and best built City in Britain, London excepted an aw. At that time, the ceetie wis biggit wi gey attractive, compact widden biggins, nane o thaim ur staundin, still. Glesga is the thrid maist faur ben tourist destination in the UK ahint Lunnon an Edinburgh an it haes Britain's seicont lairgest shoppin centre.

The coat o airms shaws Glesga's patron saunt, Saunt Kentigern, kent as Saunt Mungo forby, an it his fower emblems - a bird, a tree, a bull, an a fish. The emblems represents miracles Saunt Mungo is said tae hae performt. The motto o the ceetie is Let Glasgow Flourish an this is pairt o the airms. The motto comes fae Saunt Mungo's oreiginal sermon: Let Glasgow flourish by the preaching of the word and the praising of thy name. The oríginal version is written on a bell shapit in 1637 thit says Lord let Glasgow flovrichse throvgh the preaching of thy word and praising thy name.

Local bairns is taucht tae mynd the airms uisin the follaein verse:

The motto wis o shortsyne mynt in a sang caw'd Mother Glasgow bi Michael Marra, an forby recordit bi Hue and Cry, a faur ben muisic curn o Glesga orígin.

Glesga wis the steid o monie communities fur hunners o years afore Christ, wi the River Clyde providin a guid settin fur fishin.  The Romans aftentimes bug ootposts in ða airt an, tae haud Roman Britannia apairt fae the Celtic an Pecht Caledonia, bug the Antonine Waw, thit can be seen in Glesga the day.

Glesga itsel wis foondit bi the Christian meesionar Saunt Mungo in the 6t century. He foondit a kirk on the Molendinar Burn, whaur the Glasgow Cathedral nou staunds, an in the eftergangin years Glesga becam a releegious centre.

Bi the 12t century Glesga haed been gien the staundin o whit can nou be cawed a ceetie an the cathedral wis the saite o the Bishops an Archbishops o Glesga. While thare micht hae been widden biggins on the site, the first stane cathedral wis consecrate in aboot 1136 an gotten rid o fur a muckler ane that wis consecrate in 1197. Ootjets an alterins tae the cathedral biggins haes gaen on sin syne. The maist recent addition is the Millenium Windae unveiled on 3 Juin 1999 bi Princess Anne.

In 1451, the Varsitie o Glesga wis foondit bi papal bull an estaiblisht in relígious biggins in the precincts o Glesga Cathedral. bi the stairt o the 16t century, Glesga haed turnt intae an important relígious an academic ceetie an bi the 17t century the varsitie haed flittit fae the cathedral precincts til its ain biggin in the Hie Street.

Bi the 16t yearhunner, the ceety's treds begoud tae wald signíficant influence an the ceetie haed turnt intae an important centre o troke wi the Clyde giein access tae the ceetie an the lave o Scotland fur merchand shippin. The ingate intil the Atlantic Ocean alloued the inbringin o American tobacca an Caribbean succar, thit wis than tredit athort the Brítish Isles an continental Europe.

The de-siltin o the Clyde in the 1770s alloued lairger ships tae muive faurer up the river, thus layin the foonds fur industrie an shipbiggin in Glesga in the 19t yearhunner.

The rowth o coal an iron in Lanrickshire led tae Glesga becomin an industrial ceetie — in the hinder end cawed The Seicont ceetie o the Empire. Cotton factories an textile mills made employers o monie fowk in Glesga an the local airt.

Troke alloued muckle walth tae be generatit fur some fowk in the ceetie. The merchands makkit spectacular biggins an monuments thit can be seen the day, still, an reinvestit thair siller in development fur tae help Glesga growe further. In 1893 the burgh wis constitutit as the Coontie o the ceetie o Glesga. Glesga becam ane o the walthiest ceeties in the warld, an pairks, museums an libraries wis aa opened throu this time.

As weel as bein whit ye caw a bodie fae Glesga, Gleswegian, the Patter, the Auld Scotch an Glesga Scots is whit fowk caw the byleid (Wast Midland Scots) uised bi monie fowk in the ceetie an thon airt. Modren anglocentrism an puir media pentin o the byleid (e.g. linkin it wi neddism) means thit it is leukit at as a shamefu thing yet ye can airt oot no juist a walth o vocabular but the daurk humour fund in wree turns o phrase thit comes fae a profund common experience. 

A Gleswegian in fou speed is haurd tae unnerstaun e'en fur thair níbours in Embro. Glesga an thon airt are yin o the least Scots-speakin airts o Scotland, an has tint mony tradítional kenspeckles that's tae be fund in ither Scots byleids the day. As sic, it has come up wi mony new Scots words an saws that marras chenges gauin on in Glesga an Scots society. It is kenspeckle in Scots literature in and outwith Scotland.

Weegie is a slang word for a bodie or thing that hails fae Glesga an aw. It is maistlins uised in the East coast, particularly in Embro. Awtho it is nae aye the case in the East coast it is thocht by maist Gleswegians an fowk frae the wast-coast tae be awfu offensive.

Glesga's main sport is nae dout fitba as the ceetie is hame tae Scotland's twa maist muckle fitba teams (Rangers Fitba Club an Celtic Fitba Club) as weel as the Scots Naitional Fitba Team's grund, Hampden Pairk. It is byordinar fur a ceetie thit isnae the caipital tae hae the naitional fitba grund. Thare are wee coars an aw: Queen's Park, thit plays at Hampden Pairk, Partick Thristle, an Clyde.

Glesga haes a rugby team an aw (Glesga Warriors) thit play in Scotstoun.

Glasgow is ane o five places in Scotland thit hauds the final o the Scots Cup o Shinty, kent mair as the Camanachd Cup. This is ordinar haudit at Auld Anniesland. Ance hame tae numerous Shinty clubs, thare is nou anly ane senior club in Glesga, Glesga Mid-Argyll, as weel as twa varsity sides fae Varsity o Strathclyde an Varsity o Glesga.

Glesga pit in a bid tae haud the 2018 Simmer Youth Olympics but lost tae Buenos Aires in the 4 Julie 2013 vote.

Glesgae haes a símple unnergrund sýstem thit coníst o twa lines gaein aroond a single loop wi sindry staps aboot Glesga.

Glesga is twinned wi various ceeties.




#Article 8: Flouer o Scotland (107 words)


(The) Flouer o Scotland (; ) is the unoffeecial naitional sang o Scotland. It wis written bi Roy Williamson o the fowk baund The Corries in the 1960s.  

Scotland disna hae an offeecial naitional sang o its ain (offeecially the sang o the Unitit Kinrick, God Save the Queen, is uisit); houaniver, the sang is aftentimes uised at sportin events an the like. It competes wi Scotland the Brave for this poseetion.

Roy Williamson componed the sang in Inglis (wi a wheen Scots wirds) an Iain Aonghas MacLeòid pit the sang ower intil Gaelic. They twa sets o lyrics is reproduced ablo, alang wi a Scots version.




#Article 9: Dundee (598 words)


Dundee (Scots Gaelic: Dùn Dèagh) is Scotland's fowert-mukkilest ceitie, on the nor'eist coast. The Ceitie o Dundee is ane o the 32 cooncil auries. Dundee ligs on the River Tay. It haes a population o aboot 150,000 fowk. It ligs on the basaut plug o a slokken volcano cried the Dundee Law.

Dundee an the surroondin airts haes been woned frae the Airn Age. The port o Dundee uisst til export oo frae Angus. Eftir that, Dundee begoud ti mak juit. Duirin this tym, Jeely wis bein made in Dundee, alang wi the local furthsetters DC Thomson, wha mak the local wittinsblad The Courier an bairns' comics sik as The Beano an The Dandy. Dundee's tradeitional industries wis cried the 3 J's: Juit, Jeely an Jurnalism. Oot o the thrie, anerlie ane o the industries byds in Dundee. The furtsetters yit byds in Dundee the-day.

Dundee is whyls cried The Ceitie o Diskiverie, eftir the ship that tuik Captain Scott til the Antartic. The ship, cried the RRS Discovery, wis desyn'd an biggit in Dundee. The ship is nou stelt in the ceitie, an bruikit as a tourist attraction.

The name Dundee is o unsikkar springheid. It includes the steid-name elements dùn, fund in baith the Gaelic an Brythonic leids, sik as the Pecht leid. The lave o the name is less sikkar. It micht cud cum frae the Gaelic wird Dèagh, meinin fire. Anither is that it cums frae Tay, an in the furm o Duntay.

A neolithic cursus, wi associated barraes haes been identifee'd at the north-wastren end o the ceitie an naurby ligs the Balgarthno stane ring. A want o stratigrafie aboot the stane ring haes left it difficult for ti determin a preceiss eild, but it is thocht ti date frae aboot the late neolithic/aerlie Bronze Age. The ring haes been subjek ti vandalism in the past an haes recentlie been fenced aff for ti hain it. Bronze Age finnds ar fairlie abundant in Dundee an the surroondin aurie, parteicular in the furm o cuttie kist beirials. Frae the Airn Age, aiblins the maist merkit remains ar o the Law Hill Fort, awtho domestic remains ar weil representit anaw. Naur ti Dundee can be foond the souterrains at Carlungie an Ardestie, that date frae aboot the seicont yeirhunder AD. Seivral brochs ar foond in the aurie anaw, includin the ruins at Laws Hill naur ti Monifieth, at Craighill an at Hurley Hawkin, naur Liff.

The toun wis an aw the location o ane o the worst rail disasters in Breetish history, the Tay Brig disaster. The first Tay Rail Brig wis appent in 1878. It collapsed some 18 month later in a storm, as a passenger train passed ower it, resultin in the loss o 75 lifes. The maist destructive fire in the ceety's history cam in 1906, reportitly sendin rivers o birnin whisky throu the street.

Dundee has twa kenspekil fitbaa clubs: Dundee F.C. an Dundee Unitit F.C. Dundee High School Former Pupils RFC speil in Scotland's naitional rugby leag. The ceitie haes an ice hockey team anaw, Dundee Stars. Thay speil in the naitional Elite Ice Hockey Leag.

Dundee is a varsitie toun an haes a student population o aboot 17,000.

The Varsitie o Dundee wis makkit independent in 1967, eftir 70 yeirs o bein pairt o the Varsitie o Saunt Andras. Its a richt kenspeckil centur for teachin an research.

Abertay Varsity wis makkit a varsitie in 1994.

Thar's 37 primarie schuils an 9 seicondar schuils in the ceitie.

Dundee is hame til ane independent schuil, the Heich Schuil o Dundee.

 




#Article 10: The Kirk (137 words)


The Kirk o Scotland is the naitional kirk in Scotland. It is Presbyterian, an asinder frae the Anglican Kirk o Ingland. It is a stablisht kirk, as it is the offeecial kirk in Scotland, but it is a free kirk forby — that is, it isna a state kirk (unlike the Kirk o Ingland i Ingland), an disna hae tae repone til the Scots or UK govrenments.

The kirk is govrened bi its General Assembly, convened ance a year in Edinburgh. That assembly wales a Moderator that presides ower the meetins o the assembly an acts as the Kirk's public face for the ae year. The monarch o the Unitit Kinrick is a member, but no the heid o the Kirk o Scotland — the heid o the Kirk o Scotland is conseedered tae be Jesus Christ.




#Article 11: Auld Inglis (273 words)


The Auld Inglis leid is a wast Germanic leid that wis spak in Breetain atween aboot 425 an 1125. Hit is an early furm o Inglis an Scots, an is sib wi Auld Frisie an Auld Saxon. Wast Saxon wis the heidmaist mak o Auld Inglis in the auncient corpus, includin the epic poem Beowulf, as the Wast Saxons wis the strangest kinrick o thon time, whiles the Northumbrian dialect o Auld Inglis eventually becam the Scots leid.

Auld Inglis hud a grammatic seestem nae affa faur awa fae Laitin. In maist wuys, hit wis mair alike ti modren German ur Icelandic than tae modren Inglis. Hit wis guy inflectit, wi fyve grammatic cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, an eenstrumental), three grammatic nummers (single, plural, an dual) an three grammatic genders (masculine, feminine, an neuter) an aw. The dual wis uised fir the first an seicont persons anly, an referrit ti groups o twa.

O aw the descendants o Auld Inglis, Scots an Northumbrian Inglis are the maist true tae the oreeginal furm.

Auld Inglis didna staun still, bit raitherly its usage streeched oor a period o 700 year, fi the Wast Germanic migration ti Great Britain in the 5t century, richt up ti the hyne o the 11t century. The name o 'Auld Inglis' wis cairried on ti the time o the Norman invasion, whan the eenfluence o the French leid chynged its grammar sae it wis mair lik ti modren Inglis. Meanwhiles the Northernmaist toons whaur Auld Inglis wis spak wis ower the modren mairch o England intae Soothren Scotland aroond Midlothian. It wis fae this steid that, ower tyme, the leid split apairt frae its Soothren neebour an stairtit forming feetures o the ilk o Scots.




#Article 12: Monanday (257 words)


The Monanday is the day o the week atween Sunday an Tysday. Its name comes fae Mona, the Saxon god o the muin.

Monanday is whiles thocht on as the first day o the week. This is hou it is in the maist o Europe an Sooth Americae. In Asie, monie leids refers tae Monanday as day ane. For example, Monanday is xingqi yi in Chinese, literallie meanin day ane o the week. The warldwide staundart ISO 8601 defines Monanday as the first day o the week an aw.

In ither pairts o the warld, Monanday is the seicont day. This is the tradeetional view in the Unitit States. The name for the day in Arabic, Armenian, Georgian, Greek, Ebreu an Portuguese is seicont day. Quakers tradeetionally cries Monanday the Second Day an aw, eschewin the heathen oreegin o the Scots name Monanday.

Modren culture for ordinar leuks at Monanday as the beginnin o the warkweek, as it is for ordinar Monanday whan adults gaes back tae thair wark an bairns gaes back tae the schuil efter the weekend. This, for aa that, is wi exception; in Middle Eastren kintras the stairt o the warkweek is for ordinar Setturday (Fuirsday an Friday is leukit on as the weekend).

Monandays is attributed tae the colloquial illness Monandayitis. (Forby kent as haein a case o The Monandays) an aw. A possible raison for Monandayitis is that human circadian rhythms isna compatible wi the ordinar 35 tae 40-oor warkin week.

In the popular rime, Monanday's bairn is fair o face.




#Article 13: Tysday (304 words)


The Tysday is the day o the week atween Monanday an Wadensday. Hit gits its name in Inglis, Scots, an the Scandinavian leids fae the Nordic god Tyr (in Auld Inglis, Tiw, Tew o Tiu).

The name for the day in Arabic, Armenian, Georgian, Greek, Ebreu an Portuguese is thrid day. Quakers tradeitionallie caas Tysday the Thrid Day an aw, eschewin the heathen oreigin o the Scots name Tysday.

Shrove Tysday (forby kent as Mardi Gras - fat Tysday) foregangs the first day o Lent in the Wastren Christian calendar.

Tysday is the uisual day for elections in the Unitit States. Federal elections taks place on the Tysday efter the first Monanday in November; this date wis estaiblisht by a law o 1845 for presidential elections (speceeficallie for the walin o the Electoral College), an wis rexed tae elections for the Hoose o Representatives in 1875 an for the Senate in 1914. Tysday wis the earliest day o the week at wis practical for powin in the early 19t century: ceetizens micht hae tae traivel for a hail day for tae cast their vote, an wadna want tae leave on Sunday (the day o wirship for the feck o them). Monie American states hauds their presidential primarie elections on Super Tuesday.

Black Tysday, in the Unitit States, is the name gien tae 29 October 1929, the stairt o the muckle stock mercat panic o 1929. This wis the Tysday efter Black Thursday, at wis the stairt o the verra Muckle Depression.

In the Greek warld, Tysday (the day o the week o the Faa o Constantinople in 1453) is thocht on as a unlucky day. The same is true in the Spanish-speakin warld, whaur a sawe rins En martes, ni te cases ni te embarques (On Tysday, dinna get wad nor begin a journey).




#Article 14: Wadensday (241 words)


The Wadensday is the day o the week atween Tysday an Fuirsday. Its name comes fae the Auld Inglis Ƿódnesdæȝ, meanin the day o Woden. The astrological sign o the warld Mercury represents Wadensday, an wis Dies Mercurii tae the Romans. In Scots, this becam Woden's Day acause the Roman god Mercury wis identified wi the Germanic god Woden in northren Europe.

Whan Sunday is taen as the first day o the week, the day in the middle o the eftergangin week is Wadensday. In the German, the name for Wadensday haes been Mittwoch (literally: mid-week) sin the 10t century, cause it displaced the oreiginal name: Wodanstag.

Wadensday is in the middle o the common warkin week fae Monanday tae Fryday forby. Hooivver, see Fuirsday an ISO 8601.

In the popular rime, Wadensday's bairn is fou wi wae.

In the Spaingie, miércoles is uised tae mean Wadensday, bit forby a hauf-rude euphemism for niver iver. 

A Inglis leid eediom for Wadensday is hump day, a reference tae makkin it throu the middle o the warkweek as gettin ower the hump.

The name for the day in Arabic, Armenian, Georgian, Greek, Ebreu an Portuguese is fowert day. Quakers tradeitionally caas Wadensday the Fowert Day an aw, eschewin the heathen oreegin o the name Wadensday.

The film Angel Hert includes a scene whaur Harry Angel refers tae Wadensday as Oniething can happen day in reference tae the original Mickey Moose Club televeision programme.




#Article 15: Scots Socialist Pairty (435 words)


The Scots Socialist Pairty (SSP) () is a left-wing poleetical pairty in Scotland. It staunds for socialist economics an Scots unthirldom. It haed sax MSPs electit tae the Scots Pairlament in 2003 but didna get onybody electit in the 2007 election. 

The SSP wis estaiblisht in 1998. It growed fae the foregaun Scottish Socialist Alliance, a union o the umwhile Scots Meelitant Labour an ither groups o the faur-left, sic as the Communist Pairty o Scotland an the Scots Republican Socialist Pairty. In 1999, it haes juist the ae MSP in the Scots Pairliament. In 2003 it haed sax MSPs waled, but in 2007 it didna get onybody waled intae Halyruid.

The pairty haes duin wark in mony campaigns throu the Scots Pairlament, sic as tae git rid o rowps for them that canna pey thair dets; proponin tae git rid o chairges for lines frae the doctor an ettlin tae gie aw schuilweans guid fare for thair denner athoot haein tae pey for it.

The SSP haes duin muckle wark ootby the pairlament an aw. Wirkin wi ithers, its campaignt agin the wappens at Faslane; its campaignt agin PFI pactions for schuils an infirmaries, an gien a haund tae the warkers that keeps wee weans, warkers that pits oot fires, an warkers for the cooncil whan they ettle tae fend for thair pey an condeetions

The pairty wrate the Declaration o Calton Hill and haes been threapin agin the War in Iraq

A wheen o thir groups haes hauden thair identities athin the pairty, comin thegither as pletforms; sae the Socialist Warkers Pairtie haes become the Socialist Warkers pletform, an the Scots Republican Socialist Pairty, the Scots Republican Socialist Muvement. Ither pletforms athin the SSP includes the Republican Communist Netwark, the Warkers' Unitie pletform. It uisst tae hae anither pletform cried the International Socialist Movement that wis pairt o the Comatee for a Warkers Internaitional but that's no thegither ony mair. Some o the members bade wi the Comatee for a Warkers Internaitional while ithers frae the Internaitional Socialists haes gane thegither wi ither members o the SSP that wisna in ony pletform for tae mak the new Unitit Left group.

The Socialist Warkers Pairty an the Comatee for a Warkers Internaitional haes nou left the SSP thegether wi Tommy Sheridan tae set up anither pairty.

Colin Fox MSP is the pairty's convener an wis waled for the Lothians in 2003, the ither MSPs for 2003-2007 wis Carolyn Leckie, Rosie Kane an Frances Curran Twa ithers uisst tae be MSPs for the SSP, but left the SSP for tae set up thair ain pairty.




#Article 16: Scots unthirldom (186 words)


Scots unthirldom is the poleetical muivement that thinks Scotland shoud poleetical sinder itsel frae the Unitit Kinrick, an become an unthirlt kintra wi ane govrenment an a sovereign pairlament. The main uphauders o this idea is the Scots National Pairty, altho the'r ither muivements in Scotland that uphaud unthirldom, sic as the Scots Socialist Pairty, Scots Green Pairty, an ither smawer groups. A lairge pairt o this muivement, maistlins athin the SNP, wants tae see a Scotland closer tae the European Union, in siller-union wi ither EU kintras, in the Euro currency. Houaniver, maist o the smawer groups, e.g. the Greens, isna for this idea.

The current SNP govrenment wha first came tae pour in 2007 as minority govrenment nou hae a majority in pairlament an plan tae haud a referendum oan unthirldom in Hairst 2014.

The Aye an Naw campaigns hae baith lenched, the Aye campaign wis cawed Aye Scotland an the Naw campaign wis cawed Better Thegither.

Oan 15 October 2012, the Unitit Kinrick an Scots govrenments cam tae a greement oan the legal base o the referendum whit is cried the Edinburgh Greement.




#Article 17: Ane Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis (780 words)


Ane Pleastant Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis is a sateirical morality play wrate by Scots makar David Lyndsay an first pit on i 1552 i Lithgae, though no prentit until 1602. Ane o the Satyres disteinguishin features is is haein faircical comic, awmaist slapstick, interludes, that micht no hae been pairt o the oreiginal wark. The Satyre is the auldest survivin play i Scots, an is the ainlie survivn Scots play frae the Medieval period.

The Satyre is an attack on the Thrie Esaitis o the auld Scots Pairlament - the kirkmen, the lords and the burgesses. Thir curns is representit by the chairacters o Spiritualitie, Temporalitie an Merchand o thir, the kirkmen gets dinged the hairdest by Lindsay's pen. Wrate no lang afore the Reformation i Scotland, the wark gies a guid pictur o the social tensions that wis present at this important pynt i Scots history. 

I Pairt Ane o the play, there's twanty-seiven chairacters, an seiven mair is eikit i Pairt Twa.

The central chairacter is King Humanitie, an is influencit by twa curns o chairacters. The guid chairacters is Divyne Correctioun, Gude Counsall an Chastitie, an the bad yins is Dame Sensualitie, an the thrie vices, Faltterie, Falset an Dissait.

Set i Scotland i the 16t century, a learnit doctor cried Dilegence gies a sermon on Christian doctrine. The heidmaist chairacter, ung King Humanitie, syne kythes an gangs agley unner the influence o Dame Sensualitie an the Vices. His counsellors gar him tak a mistress, that sets aff his tynin o Christian morals. Syne he is begowkit by the thrie vices, that hae guisit thaimsels as Devotioun, Discretioun an (efter a hilarious fankle whaur Falset forleits his fauss-name an accidentally cries hissel Thin Drink) Sapience. 

The Vices tak control o the court, haein Gude Counsel incarcerate an stairtin tae control the King hissel. The King forleits his Christian vitrues an canna rule richt onie mair - aw the while the Vices tak mair an mair control, sendin Charitie an Veritie tae the jougs. They dae awa wi Chastitie an aw, leavin her hameless, an seimbolically no taen in by Spiritualitie, Temporalitie or the common fowk. Efter Chastitie is finally bein pit i the jyle hersel, Divine Correctioun taks tae the stage - the Vices ken their time is up, an tak the gate afore their caught, takkin the king's traisure kist wi thaim. Divine Correctioun lowses Gude Counsel, Chastitie an Veritie, an redes the king tae caw a pairlament, breingin an end tae Pairt Ane.

A comical interlude skails the twa pairts o the play, in whilk Peur Man an Diligence flyte on ithir, i the mainner o Dunbar an Kennedy (or for that maitter Lindsay hissel an James V). Diligence braks the fowerth waw as the Peur Man lowps on the stage, cawin doun the officiars for lattin the fals raggit loun win inbye the theatre. Peur Man gies sum speeches about the abuse o pouer by the kirkmen, an the want o justice, sayin: I culd get nane at Sessioun nor Seinye(1974). He gies a wee comment about hou plays an siclike entertainment dinna mak up for the wae o puirtith: I wil not gif for al your play worth ane sowis fart/ For there is richt litill play at my hungire hart.(1964-5).

Diligence apens the pairliament an the King, Correctioun an the Virtews come ben. John Commonweal (representin the common guid o the kintra) taks speech i haun an tells o the failins o thrie estaites. The Merchand an Temporalitie get serred, an their estaites want reform, an tho Spiritualie (the kirkmen) tries tae fecht back, the chairges brocht agin him is ower monie an the kirkmen gies in. The Thrie Vices is incarcerate, deemit an execute, but no afore ilk ane o thaim haes the chance tae gie a wee speech. Syne Diligence closes the play, redin awbodie tae gang their gate an live weil, afore concludin:

Efter no bein playit for awmaist fower hunner year, the Satyre wis revivit for the Edinburgh Festival i 1948, direcrit by Tyrone Guthrie, wi the text bein editit an prepared for an actin edition by Robert Kemp.

I the 1980s by the Scottish Theatre Company, direcit by Tam Fleming playit at the Kirk o Scotland's heidquarters on the Mound for the Festival, an toured Europe an aw, winnin the Roman Szydlowski Prize i Warsaw, 1986. The rinnin time for this production, maugre o cuts tae the text, wis aroun fower an a hauf hour.

I 1996, John McGrath adaptit it a mair contemporary morality play A Satire of the Four Estates, that wis presentit by Wildcat Theatre Company as the pairt o the Edinburgh Festival.




#Article 18: Europe (249 words)


Europe is geologically an geographically a hauf-island, takkin up the wastrenmaist pairt o Eurasie. It is for ordinar conseedert a continent, that, in this case, is mair a cultural nor a geographic differ. It is bund in the north bi the Airctic Ocean, in the wast bi the Atlantic Ocean, in the sooth bi the Mediterranean Sea an the Black Sea, an in the east bi the Ural Moontains an the Caspian Sea.

Gin conseedert a continent, Europe is the seicont-wee-est continent in the warld bi area, wi an area o 10,523,000 km² (4,140,625 square mile), sicwice it is mair lairger nor anly Australie. In population it is the thrid-lairgest continent efter Asie an Africae. The population o Europe is aboot 705,500,000: aboot 11% o the warld's population.

Main airticle: Regions o Europe

Sub-diveesions o Europe is gey arbitrar, as nae consensus exists on the sindry defineetions that's proponed. Nae strict geographical conventions exists; this cairt represents, housomiver, the maist widespreid idea o whit kintras constitutes the sindry regions o the continent. Aften the regions includes differin kintras nor them that's on the cairt.

Some kintras haes territory in baith Europe an Asie (Roushie, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Georgie). Thair Asie territory is coloured licht pink. Some states that lies haily on the Asie continent is conseedered pairt o Europe acause o cultural an historical raisons (Armenie, Cyprus). Thay are coloured daurk-pink. Azerbaijan's exclave o Nakhchivan is coloured daurk-pink an aw acause it isna a conteenous extension o Azerbaijan's territory.




#Article 19: Cooncil areas o Scotland (115 words)


A cooncil area in Scotland is an area made fur local govrenment. Thare is a o 32 cooncil areas in Scotland as a hale. Thay are aw govrened bi unitary authorities cawed cooncils. The cooncil areas war creutit on 1 April 1996, unner the provisions o the Local Govrenment etc. (Scotland) Act 1994. The Act caws thaim local authority areas but maist fowk caw thaim cooncil areas.

The cooncil areas hiv the option tae be kent as a  whan choosin tae hiv a Gaelic name. Hounaiver, juist Comhairle Nan Eilean Siar (Cooncil o the Wastern Isles) haes chysen this option, while the Heichland Cooncil (Comhairle na Gaidhealtachd) uises baith an Inglis an a Gaelic name.




#Article 20: Fife (215 words)


Fife () is ane o the 32 cooncil areas o Scotland. It ligs atwein the Firth o Tay an the Firth o Forth. It is a tradeitional coontie o Scotland, an a lieutenancie area tae.

Fife wis ane o the Pectish kingriks an is aye kent as the Kingrik o Fife. Fife maistlyk taks its name frae Fib or Fif, a 7t centurie Pectish king. He wis ane o the seivin sons o Cruithne, a warrior king that ruled ower a wyd area o auncient Scotland.

Frae 1975 til 1996 Fife wis sindert intil thrie destriks: Dunfaurlin, Kirkcaldy, an North-Eist Fife. Sin 1996 the wark o thae destrik cooncils haes been cairrit oot bi Fife Cooncil.

Cupar tuik ower as coontie toun frae The Crail in the aerlie 13t centurie. Glenrothes haes been the heidtoun sin 1975. Fife's thrie mukkil touns ar ndash; Kirkcaldy, Dunfaurlin an Glenrothes. Gaun bi the 2006 estimate, Kirkcaldy is the mukkilest, wi aboot 48,108 indwallers. The mukkilest sattilment bi area is Glenrothes. The next mukkil touns b population ar St Andras, Dawgety Bay, Rosyth, Methil an Coudenbaith. The lave o Fife is made up o smawer touns sic as Inverkeithin, Kincairdine, Ainster, Lochgelly, Bruntisland, Leevin, Neeburgh, Tayport an Cupar an veilages sic as Kinglassie, Kinghorn, Elie, Auchtertool, Crossgates an Bingry.




#Article 21: Januar (367 words)


Januar is tha first month o tha yeir in tha Gregorian calendar, an ane o sievin Gregorian months wi 31 days.

Januar is named eftir Janus, Roman god o durs an yetts.

Januar begins (astrologicalie) wi tha sun in tha syn o Capricorn an ends in tha syn o Aquarius. Frae an astrologie pynt o view, tha sun begins in tha starnhoard o Sagittarius an ends in tha starnhoard o Capricornus.

The oreiginal Roman calendar wis makkit o 10 month (304 days). The Romans first hid thocht aboot winter as bein a monthless tyd. Bit aboot 700 BC Romulus' eftirganger, King Numa Pompilius, eikit the months o Januar an Februar allouin the calendar ti be e'en wi a staundart moon towmond (354 days). A Roman fowkbeleif agin e'en nummers led til the eikin o ane day sicweys makin the yeir 355 days lang. Tho Mairch wis oreiginalie the first month, Januar usurp'd that poseition acause 'at wis whan consuls wis uisualie waled.

The first day o the month is kent as Ne'er's Day.

Names for Januar o auld lang syn include its oreiginal Roman ane Ianuarius, the Saxon name Wulf-monath (meinin wouf month) an Charlemagne's ain name for it: Wintarmanoth (meinin winter / cald month). In the auld Japanese calendar, the month is caa'd Mutsuki (睦月). The seicont day o the month is kent as Hatsuyume (初夢) an the 7t day as Nanakusa (七草). In Finnish, the month is caa'd tammikuu, meinin month o the aik.

The first Monanday in Januar is kent as Handsel Monanday in Scotland an northren Ingland. In Ingland, the feildwark yeir began wi Plou Sunday on the Sunday cumin eftir Uphalyday.

The cumin o age day in Japan is the seicont Monanday o Januar, for thae becumin 20 yeir auld in the new calendar towmond. It is a landweid haliday. The day haes been aboot sin 1948, bit fell on Januar 15t til 1999, whan it wis muivit bi the Japanese govrenment in a mynt ti lift the economie bi makin mair holidays cum ane eftir the ither.

In the Haithen wheel o the yeir, Januar ends at or naur til Imbolc in the northren hemisphere an Lughnasadh in the soothren hemisphere.




#Article 22: Unitit Kinrick (3349 words)


The Unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain an Northren Ireland (), commonly kent the Unitit Kinrick (; UK) or Breetain (), is a sovereign state in waster Europe. Lyin aff the north-wastren coast o the European mainlaund, the UK includes the isle o Great Breetain, the north-eastren pairt o the isle o Ireland an mony smawer islands. Northren Ireland is the anly pairt o the Unitit Kinrick that shares a laund mairch wi anither sovereign statethe Republic o Ireland. Apairt frae this laund mairch, the UK is surroondit bi the Atlantic Ocean, wi the North Sea tae its east, the Inglis Channel tae its sooth an the Celtic Sea tae its sooth-sooth-wast, giein it the 12t-langest coastline in the warld. The Erse Sea lies atween Great Breetain an Ireland. Wi an aurie o , the UK is the 78t-lairgest sovereign state in the warld an the 11t-lairgest in Europe. It is the 21st-maist populous kintra an aw, wi an estimatit 67.8 million indwallers as o 2020.

The UK is a constitutional monarchy wi a pairliamentar democracy. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, that haes ringit syne 6 Februar 1952, makkin her the langest-servin current heid o state. The UK's caipital an lairgest ceety is Lunnon, a global ceety an financial centre wi an urban aurie population o 10.3 million, the fowert-lairgest in Europe. Ither major urban auries in the UK include the conurbations centred on Birmingham, Leeds, Glesga, Liverpuil an Manchester. The UK consists o fower kintras—Ingland, Scotland, Wales an Northren Ireland. Aw but Ingland hae devolved admeenistrations, ilk wi varyin pouers, based in thair caipitals Edinburgh, Cairdiff an Belfast, respectively. The nearbi Isle o Man, Bailiwick o Guernsey an Bailiwick o Jersey are no pairt o the UK, bein Croun dependencies wi the Breetish Govrenment responsible for defence an internaitional representation.

Prior tae the formation o the UK, Wales haed been conquered an annexed bi the Kinrick o Ingland. This meant that the unitit kinrick creatit in 1707 bi the Treaty o Union atween Ingland an Scotland encompassed aw o Great Breetain. The Kinrick o Ireland merged wi this state in 1801 tae form the Unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain an Ireland. Five-saxts o Ireland secedit frae the UK in 1922, leavin the present formulation o the Unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain and Northren Ireland. Thare are fowerteen Breetish Owerseas Territories, the remnants o the Breetish Empire that, at its hicht in the 1920s, encompassed awmaist a quarter o the warld's land mass an wis the lairgest empire in history. Breetish influence can be observed in the leid, cultur an legal seestems o mony o its umwhile colonies.

The UK is a developit kintra an haes the warld's saxt-lairgest economy bi nominal GDP   an ninth-lairgest economy bi purchasin pouer parity. It haes a heich-income economy an haes a verra heich Human Development Index, rankin 16t in the warld. It wis the first industrialised kintra an the warld's foremaist pouer in the 19t an early 20t centuries. The UK remeens a great pouer wi conseederable economic, cultural, militar, scienteefic an poleetical influence internaitionally. It is a recognised nuclear wappens state an is seivent in militar expenditur in the warld. It haes been a permanent member o the Unitit Naitions Security Cooncil syne its first session in 1946. It wis a leadin member state o the EU an its predecessor, the European Economic Commonty (EEC), frae 1973 till 2020. The UK a member o the Commonweel o Naitions, the G7 finance meenisters, the G7 forum, the G20, NATO, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation an Development (OECD), an the Warld Tred Organisation (WTO).

Settlement bi anatomically modren humans o whit wis tae acome the Unitit Kinrick occurred in waves beginnin bi aboot 30,000 years agae. Bi the end o the region's prehistoric period, the population is thocht tae hae belanged, in the main, tae a cultur termed Insular Celtic, comprisin Brythonic Breetain an Gaelic Ireland. The Roman conquest, beginnin in 43 AD, an the 400-year rule o soothren Breetain, wis follaed bi an invasion bi Germanic Anglo-Saxon settlers, reducin the Brythonic area mainly tae whit wis tae acome Wales,   Cornwall an the historic Kinrick o Strathclyde. Maist o the region settled bi the Anglo-Saxons becam unifee'd as the Kinrick o Ingland in the 10t century. Meanwhile, Gaelic-speakers in north-wast Britain (wi connections tae the north-east o Ireland an tradeetionally supposed tae hae migratit frae thare in the 5t century) unitit wi the Picts tae creaut the Kinrick o Scotland in the 9t century.

The early modren period saw releegious conflict resultin frae the Reformation an the introduction o Protestant state kirks in ilk kintra. Wales wis fully incorporatit intae the Kinrick o Ingland, an Ireland wis constitutit as a kinrick in personal union wi the Inglis croun.

In 1603, Elizabeth I o Ingland deed an Jamie the Saxt o Scotland becam James the First o Ingland an aa. Tha Acts o Union 1707 makkit tha Kinrick o Great Breetain an tha Scots Pairlament wis unitit wi tha Inglis pairlament in Lunnon.

In the mid-17t century, aw three kinricks war involved in a series o connectit wars (includin the Inglis Ceevil War) that led tae the temporar owerthraw o the monarchy an the establishment o the short-leeved unitar republic o the Commonweel o Ingland, Scotland an Ireland. Awtho the monarchy wis restored, the Interregnum ensured (alang wi the Glorious Revolution o 1688 an the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689, an the Claim of Right Act 1689) that, unlik muckle o the rest o Europe, ryal absolutism wad nae prevail, an a professed Catholic coud niver accede tae the thrane. The Breetish constitution wad develop on the basis o constitutional monarchy an the pairlamentary seestem.

Tho previous attempts at unitin the twa kinricks within Great Breetain in 1606, 1667, an 1689 haed pruived unsuccessfu, the attempt initiatit in 1705 led tae the Treaty o Union o 1706 bein agreed an ratified bi baith pairlaments.

On 1 Mey 1707, the unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain came intae bein, the result o Acts o Union bein passed bi the pairlaments o Ingland an Scotland tae ratify the 1706 Treaty o Union an sae unite the twa kinricks.

In the 18t century, cabinet govrenment developed unner Robert Walpole, in practice the first prime meenister (1721–1742). A series o Jacobite Uprisins socht tae remuive the Protestant Hoose o Hanover frae the Breetish thrane an restore the Catholic Hoose o Stuart. The Jacobites war feenally defeatit at the Battle o Culloden in 1746, efter that the Scots Hielanders war brutally suppressed. The Breetish colonies in North Americae that brak awey frae Britain in the American War o Unthirldom becam the Unitit States o Americae, recognised bi Britain in 1783. Breetish imperial ambition turned taewart Asie, pairteecularly tae Indie.

Efter the defeat o Fraunce at the end o the Revolutionary an Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), Great Breetain emerged as the principal naval an imperial pouer o the 19t century (wi Lunnon the lairgest ceety in the warld frae aboot 1830). Unchallenged at sea, Breetish dominance wis later descrived as Pax Britannica (Breetish Peace), a period o relative peace amang the Great Pouers (1815–1914) in that the Breetish Empire becam the global hegemon an adoptit the role o global polisman.

Breetain focht alangside Fraunce, Roushie an (efter 1917) the Unitit States, against Germany an its allies in the First Warld War (1914–1918). Breetish airmed forces war engaged athort muckle o the Breetish Empire an in several regions o Europe, pairteecularly on the Wastren front. The heich fatalities o trench warfare caused the loss o muckle o a generation o men, wi lastin social effects in the naition an a great disruption in the social order.

The rise o Erse naitionalism, an disputes within Ireland ower the terms o Erse Hame Rule, led eventually tae the pairteetion o the island in 1921. The Erse Free State becam independent wi Dominion status in 1922. Northren Ireland remeened pairt o the Unitit Kinrick. A wave o strikes in the mid-1920s culminatit in the General Strike o 1926. Britain haed still nae recuivered frae the effects o the war whan the Great Depression (1929–1932) occurred. This led tae conseederable unemployment an haurdship in the auld industrial auries, as weel as poleetical an social unrest in the 1930s, wi risin membership in communist an socialist pairties. A coaleetion govrenment wis formed in 1931.

Breetain entered the Seicont Warld War bi declarin war on Nazi Germany in 1939, efter Germany haed invadit Poland. Winston Churchill becam prime meenister an heid o a coaleetion govrenment in 1940. Despite the defeat o its European allies in the first year o the war, Breetain an its Empire conteena'd the ficht alane against Germany. In 1940, the Ryal Air Force defeatit the German Luftwaffe in a struggle for control o the skies in the Battle o Breetain. Urban auries suffered hivy bombin in the Blitz. Thare war an aa eventual haurd-focht veectories in the Battle o the Atlantic, the North Africae campaign an the Burma campaign. Breetish forces played an important role in the Normandy laundins o 1944, achieved wi its Unitit States ally.

Efter the end o the Seicont Warld War in 1945, the UK wis ane o the Big Fower pouers (alang wi the U.S., the Soviet Union, an Cheenae) that met tae plan the post-war warld; it wis an oreeginal seegnatory tae the Declaration o the Unitit Naitions. The UK wis the third kintrea tae develop a nuclear wappens airsenal (wi its first atomic bomb test in 1952), but the new post-war leemits o Breetain's internaitional role war illustratit bi the Suez Creesis o 1956.

Frae the late 1960s, Northren Ireland suffered communal an paramilitar veeolence (whiles affectin ither pairts o the UK) conventionally kent as the Tribbles. It is uisually conseedert tae hae endit wi the Belfast Guid Fryday Agreement o 1998.

Aroond the end o the 20t century thare war major cheenges tae the govrenance o the UK wi the establishment o devolved admeenistrations for Scotland, Wales an Northren Ireland.

In the decade-lang process o European integration, the UK wis a foondin member o the alliance cried the Wastren European Union, established wi the Lunnon an Paris Conferences in 1954. In 1960 the UK wis ane o the seeven foondin members o the European Free Tred Association (EFTA), but in 1973 it left tae jyne the European Commonties (EC). Whan the EC becam the European Union (EU) in 1992, the UK wis ane o the 12 foondin members. In 2016, the Unitit Kinrick votit tae leave the European Union. The legal process o leavin the EU begoud on 29 Mairch 2017, wi the UK's invocation o Airticle 50 o the Treaty o Lisbon, formally notifyin the EU o the UK's intention tae leave. The UK steyed a fou member o the EU till 31 January 2020.

The tot aurie o the Unitit Kinrick is approximately . The kintra occupies the major pairt o the Breetish Isles airchipelago an includes the island o Great Breetain, the north-eastren ane-saxt o the island o Ireland an some smawer surroondin islands. It lies atween the North Atlantic Ocean an the North Sea wi the sooth-east coast comin within  o the coast o northren Fraunce, frae that it is separatit bi the Inglis Channel. In 1993 10% o the UK wis forestit, 46% uised for pastures an 25% cultivatit for agricultur. The Ryal Greenwich Observatory in Lunnon is the definin pynt o the Prime Meridian.

The Unitit Kinrick lies atween latitudes 49° tae 61° N, an longitudes 9° W tae 2° E. Northren Ireland shares a  laund boondary wi the Republic o Ireland. The coastline o Great Breetain is  lang. It is connectit tae continental Europe bi the Channel Tunnel, that at  ( unnerwatter) is the langest unnerwatter tunnel in the warld.

Ingland accoonts for juist ower hauf o the tot aurie o the UK, cuiverin . Maist o the kintra consists o lawland terrain, wi moontainous terrain north-wast o the Tees-Exe line; includin the Cumbrian Moontains o the Loch Destrict, the Pennines, Exmoor an Dartmoor. The main rivers an estuaries are the Thames, Severn an the Humber. Ingland's heichest moontain is Scafell Pike () in the Loch Destrict. Its principal rivers are the Severn, Thames, Humber, Tees, Tyne, Tweed, Avon, Exe an Mersey.

Scotland accoonts for juist unner a third o the tot aurie o the UK, cuiverin  an includin nearly aicht hunder islands, predominantly wast an north o the mainland; notably the Hebrides, Orkney Islands an Shetland Islands. Scotland is the maist moontainous kintra in the UK an its topografie is distinguished bi the Hieland Boondary Faut—a geological rock fractur—that traverses Scotland frae Arran in the wast tae Stanehyve in the east. The faut separates twa distinctively different regions; namely the Hielands tae the north an wast an the lawlands tae the sooth an east. The mair rugged Hieland region conteens the majority o Scotland's moontainous laund, includin Ben Nevis that at  is the heichest pynt in the Breetish Isles. Lawland auries—especially the narrae waist o laund atween the Firth o Clyde an the Firth o Forth kent as the Central Belt—are flatter an hame tae maist o the population includin Glesga, Scotland's lairgest ceety, an Edinburgh, its caipital an poleetical centre, awtho upland an moontainous terrain lies within the Soothren Uplands.

Wales accoonts for less nor a tent o the tot aurie o the UK, cuiverin . Wales is maistly moontainous, tho Sooth Wales is less moontainous nor North an mid Wales. The main population an industrial auries are in Sooth Wales, consistin o the coastal ceeties o Cairdiff, Swansea an Newport, an the Sooth Wales Valleys tae their north. The heichest moontains in Wales are in Snowdonie an include Snowdon () that, at , is the heichest peak in Wales. The 14, or possibly 15, Welsh moontains ower  heich are kent collectively as the Welsh 3000s. Wales haes ower  o coastline. Several islands lie aff the Welsh mainland, the lairgest o that is Anglesey (Ynys Môn) in the north-wast.

Northren Ireland, separatit frae Great Breetain bi the Erse Sea an North Channel, haes an aurie o  an is maistly hilly. It includes Lough Neagh that, at , is the lairgest loch in the Breetish Isles bi aurie. The heichest peak in Northren Ireland is Slieve Donard in the Mourne Moontains at .

The Unitit Kinrick haes a temperate climate, wi plentifu rainfaw aw year roond. The temperatur varies wi the saisons seendle drappin ablo  or risin abuin . The prevailin wind is frae the sooth-wast an beirs frequent spells o mild an wet wather frae the Atlantic Ocean, awtho the eastren pairts are maistly sheltered frae this wind syne the majority o the rain faws ower the wastren regions the eastren pairts are tharefore the driest. Atlantic currents, wairmed bi the Gulf Stream, bring mild winters; especially in the wast whaur winters are wet an iven mair sae ower heich grund. Simmers are wairmest in the sooth-east o Ingland, bein closest tae the European mainland, an cuilest in the north. Hivy snawfaw can occur in winter an early ware on heich grund, an occasionally settles tae great deepth awey frae the hills.

The UK haes a pairtially regulatit mercat economy. Based on mercat exchynge rates, the UK is theday the fift-lairgest economy in the warld an the seicont-lairgest in Europe efter Germany. HM Thesaury, led bi the Chancellor o the Exchequer, is responsible for developin an executin the govrenment's public finance policy an economic policy. The Bank o Ingland is the UK's central bank an is responsible for issuin notes an cunyies in the naition's siller, the poond sterling. Banks in Scotland an Northren Ireland reteen the richt tae issue thair awn notes, subject tae reteenin eneuch Bank o Ingland notes in reserve tae cuiver their issue. The poond sterling is the warld's third-lairgest reserve siller (efter the US dollar an the euro). Syne 1997 the Bank o Ingland's Monetary Policy Committee, heidit bi the Govrenor o the Bank o Ingland, haes been responsible for settin interest rates at the level necessar tae achieve the oweraw inflation target for the economy that is set bi the Chancellor ilk year.

The UK service sector maks up aroond 79% o GDP.

In the 2011 census the tot population o the Unitit Kinrick wis 63,181,775. It is the fift-lairgest in the Commonweel o Nations an the 22nt lairgest in the warld.

The UK's de facto offeecial leid is Inglis. Houiver, thar is monie leids spak in the Unitit Kinrick bi baith native an immigrant.

The native leids can be spleet inti twa groups:

In the 2001 census 71.6% o aw respondents indicatit that thay war Christians, wi the next lairgest faiths bein Islam (2.8%), Hinduism (1.0%), Sikhism (0.6%), Judaism (0.5%), Buddhism (0.3%) an aw ither releegions (0.3%). 15% o respondents statit that thay haed na releegion, wi a forder 7% nae statin a releegious preference.

The Unitit Kinrick is a unitar state unner a constitutional monarchy. Queen Elizabeth II haes been the monarch an heid o state o the UK, as weel as Queen o fifteen ither independent Commonweel kintras. The monarch haes the richt tae be consultit, the richt tae encourage, an the richt tae wairn. The Constitution o the Unitit Kinrick is uncodified an consists maistly o a collection o disparate written soorces, includin statutes, juidge-made case law an internaitional treaties, thegither wi constitutional conventions. As thare is na technical difference atween ordinar statutes an constitutional law, the UK Pairlament can perform constitutional reform semply bi passin Acts o Pairlament, an sicweys haes the poleetical pouer tae cheenge or abolish awmaist ony written or unwritten element o the constitution. Houiver, na Pairlament can pass laws that futur Pairlaments canna cheenge.

The UK haes a pairlamentar govrenment based on the Wastmeenster seestem that haes been emulatit aroond the warld: a legacy o the Breetish Empire. The pairlament o the Unitit Kinrick meets in the Palace o Wastmeenster an haes twa houses: an electit Hoose o Commons an appointit Hoose o Lairds. Aw bills passed are gien Ryal Assent afore acomin law.

The poseetion o prime meenister, the UK's heid o govrenment, belangs tae the person maist likely tae command the confidence o the Hoose o Commons.

The Inglis playwright an poet William Shakespeare is widely regairdit as the greatest dramatist o aw time, Robert Burns is a weel kent an praised poet.

The Beatles hae internaitional sales o ower ane billion units an are the biggest-sellin an maist influential baund in the history o popular muisic. Ither prominent Breetish contreibutors tae hae influenced popular muisic ower the last 50 year include The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, Queen, Led Zeppelin, the Bee Gees, an Elton John, aw o that hae warldwide record sales o 200 million or mair.

The Unitit Kinrick haes haed a conseederable influence on the history o the cinema. The Breetish directors Alfred Hitchcock, that's film Vertigo is conseedert bi some creetics as the best film o aw time, an David Lean are amang the maist critically acclaimed o aw-time. ither important directors includin Charlie Chaplin, Michael Powell, Carol Reed, Edgar Wright, Christopher Nolan, an Ridley Scott. Mony Breetish actors hae achieved internaitional fame an creetical success, includin: Julie Andrews, Richard Burton, Michael Caine, Colin Firth, Gary Oldman, Ben Kingsley, Ian McKellen, Liam Neeson, Charlie Chaplin, Sean Connery, Vivien Leigh, David Niven, Laurence Olivier, Peter Sellers, Kate Winslet, Anthony Hopkins, an Daniel Day-Lewis.

Major sports, includin association fitbaa, tennis, rugby union, rugby league, gowf, boxin, netbaw, rowin an cricket, oreeginatoy or war substantially developed in the UK an the states that precedit it. Wi the rules an codes o mony modren sports inventit an codifee'd in late 19t century Victorian Breetain, in 2012, the Preses o the IOC, Jacques Rogge, statit; This great, sports-loving country is widely recognised as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum.




#Article 23: Auld Alliance (190 words)


The Auld Alliance is the name gien til a series o treaties atween Scotland an  Fraunce for mutual protection agin Ingland atween 1295 an 1560 (tho it shoud be merkit that Norawa wis involved in some o the earlier stents).  

The terms wisna the same in ilka treaty that wis gree'd on, but for ordinar thay held that gin ae kintra wis attackit bi Ingland, baith wad invade Ingland; an sic led tae the Battle o Flodden Field in 1513.

It coud be seen frae 1165 whan William the Lion addressit an ambassy tae Louis VII o France bat thinkin the first script o this alliance whilka hae been foond is the Treaty signit in Paris the 23 Octobre 1295 atween John Baliol's (awso ca'd John o Scotland) representin fowks an Philippe le Bel. The 23 Februar 1296, Scots parliament ratifee th'Alliance treaty signit wi Fraunce.

In 1326, Robert Bruce anewit the Alliance wi the treaty o Corbeil. In the XIVt an XVt centuries, the treaty wis invokit six times.

Acause o this treaty, som French wirds entered in the Scots leid, an they were in baith senses cultural influence.




#Article 24: Fuirsday (344 words)


The Fuirsday is the day o the week atween Wadensday an Fryday. The name Fuirsday comes fae the Auld Inglis Þunresdæg, meanin the day o Þunor, forby kent in Inglis as Thor.

Bi some conventions (see ISO 8601), the Fuirsdays o a towmond determine the hantlin o the weeks: week 1 is the week at his in it the first Fuirsday o the towmond, an sae on. 

In the Inglis warld, some haes taen up an acronym for Fuirsday, akin tae Fryday's T.G.I.F., an says So Happy It's Thursday, or S.H.I.T. 

I' the popular rime, Fuirsday's bairn his faur tae gang. 

In the Unitit Kinrick, aa general elections sin 1935 haes been hauden on a Fuirsday an this haes becam tradeetion, thou it isnae a requirement o the law – at says an election micht be hauden on onie day except Saturdays, Sundays, Christmas Eve, Christmas Day, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, bank holidays in any part of the United Kingdom and any day appointed for public thanksgiving and mourning. An expoundin sometimes gien for the chyce o Fuirsday as the pollin day is it wis, in maist touns, the tradeetional mercat day, thou it his been sayed at the chyce his practical advantages – wi the ootcome o the election bein kent by Fryday, the new or ongangin admeenistration then his the weekend tae redd itsel for the government shop openin for business on Monanday, the first day o the new week comin efter the election.

In The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams, the chairacter Arthur Dent says This must be Thursday. I could never get the hang of Thursdays. A twa-three meenits later the warld is destroyed. Thor, that the day is named efter, forby appears later in the Hitchhiker's series an in ither Adams beuks.

I' the Hindu releegion, Fuirsday is guruvar or the Guru's day.

The name for the day in Arabic, Armenian, Georgian, Greek, Ebreu an Portuguese is fift day. Quakers tradeitionally caas Fuirsday the Fift Day an aw, eschewing the heathen oreegin o the name Fuirsday.




#Article 25: Phoneme (168 words)


In spoken leids, a phoneme is a basic, theoretical unit o soond that disteenguishes wirds (that is, bi chyngin a phoneme in ae 
wird,  the ootcome is anither wird that's meanin differs). The phoneme is a basic soond lith, that's lingueestic function is tae disteenguish 
the  morphemes o a wird.  Phonemes isna pheesical soonds, but abstractions. Phonemes is for ordinar seen as a faimlie o phones, 
that's seen as a single soond, an is pitten ower wi a common seembol. Phones that's phoneme instance variants, an represents the 
phonetic qualities o actual soond lithes, is kent as allophones. The basic soond unit comes oot throu phonemic analysis. Phonemic 
seembology is pitten atween slashes (//). A cuttit wey tae descrieve the notion o a phoneme is the wee-est differ atween wirds, that's ootcome is an unalike meanin. 

A phoneme micht weel represent a wheen categorically  phonetically seemilar or phonologically sib soonds. 
The sibness micht no be phonetically obvious, whit is itsel, ane o the kinches wi this conceptual scheme.




#Article 26: Allophones (192 words)


In phonetics, an allophone is ane amang mony seemilar phones that's ocht the same phoneme. A phone is a soond that's soond swaw haes a definite shape, altho a phoneme is a basic group o soonds that disteenguishes wirds (i.e. chynging ae phoneme in ae wird brings forrit anither wird); speakers o a parteecular leid perceives a phoneme as a single kenspeckle soond in that leid. Fae this, an allophone is a phone thocht on as a member o the ae phoneme. 

Ilka allophone is uised in a speceefic phonetic context. No aw phonemes haes signeeficantly differin allophones, but thare's aye a wee differ in soondin fae the ae bit speak tae the neist. An examplar is in Japanese that haes nae disteenction atween /l/ an /r/, an sae thir twa soonds gets guddelt by Japanese speakers acause thir soonds isna thocht on as sindry phonemes. Hooivver, in Scots thir twa soonds is thocht on as twa sindry anes, sae thay're baith thocht on as sindry phonemes. In some byleids o Inglis, daurk or velarised l is conseedert juist a kin o /l/, but in some ither leids, thir twa soonds differs.




#Article 27: Friday (311 words)


Friday is the day o the week atween Fuirsday an Setturday. Its name comes fae the goddess Frige o Germanic mythologie.

In maist auries wi a five-day wirkin week, Friday is the hindmaist warkday afore the weekend an is therefore leukit on as a cause for celebration or relief, leadin tae the sayin TGIF, an abbreviation for Thank God It's Friday or Thank Goodness It's Friday. (The phrase wis made popular bi a film in the 1970s.) Forby thon Friday is the inspiration for the restaurant, aptly named, T.G.I. Friday's.
In some offices, employees is allood tae weir less formal claes on Fridays, kent as Casual Friday or Dress-Doun Friday.

In Islam, Friday is the day o public worship in mosques (see Friday prayers). In some Islamic kintras, the week begins on Sunday an ends on Setturday, juist lik the Jewish an Christian week. In ithers, sic as Iran an Afghanistan, the week begins on Setturday an ends on Friday.

The Jewish Sawbath begins at sunset on Friday an runs til sunset on Setturday.

In Christianity, the Friday afore Easter is celebratit as Good Friday tae commemorate the crucifixion o Jesus. Some Christians will refrain fae eatin meat on Fridays, an will aften hae fish in its steid.

The name for the day in Arabic, Armenian, Georgian, Greek, Ebreu an Portuguese is saxt day. Quakers tradeitionally caas Friday the Saxt Day an aw, eschewing the heathen oreegin o the name.

In some culturs, Friday is thocht on as unlucky, specially gin this is Friday the 13t, 13 bein an wanchancy nummer. This is parteecular sae in maritime circles; in ane (untruestory a Ryal Navy ship HMS Friday wis laid doun on a Friday, lenched on a Friday an captained bi a Captain Friday an wis never heard o again.

Several historical disasters at happent on Fridays is kent as Black Friday.




#Article 28: Seturday (311 words)


Setturday is the day o the week atween Friday an Sunday. Its name is the ae ane amang the names o days, in that it cams fae the Roman god Saturn, while the ither sax names is derived fae Saxon gods.

Bi tradeetion comin fae the auncient Jews, Setturday is the hindmaist day o the week. That convention remains universallie standard i' the United States, bit in modnen Europe mony fowks nou think o Setturday as the saxt (forelast) day o the week, an Sunday the last. The modren European convention haes been makkit formal bi ISO 8601. On the ither haund, in mony Islamic kintras, Setturdays is the first day o the week, wi Fridays as holidays.

I' the popular rime, Setturday's bairn wirks hard for a livin.

In auncient Jewish tradeetion Setturday is the saabath. Mony leids disnae hiv separate words for Setturday an saabath. Eastren Orthodox kirks distinguish atween the saabath (Setturday) an the Lord's day (Sunday). Roman Catholics put gey wee emphasis on that distinction at mony amang them follae – at least in colloquial leid – the Protestant practice o namin Sunday the saabath. Quakers tradeetionally caa Setturday the Sevent Day eschewing the heathen origin o the name.

In Scandinavie kintras, Setturday is caad Lördag or Laurdag etc., the name camin fae the auld wird laugr, meanin bath, sicweys Lördag equates tae bath-day.

The modren Maori name for it, Rahoroi, means washing-day.

In mony kintras whaur Sundays are holidays, Setturday is pairt o the weekend, an is tradeetionallie a day o restin. Mony parties are held on Setturdays, acause it foregangs Sunday, anither day o rest. It is common for clubs, bars an restaurants til open later on Setturday nicht nor on ither nichts.

Setturday is the uisual day for elections in Australie an the ae day in New Zealand at elections can be held on.




#Article 29: Robert Burns (2281 words)


Robert Burns (25 Januar 1759 in Allowa, Ayrshire – 21 Julie 1796 in Dumfries), cried Robbie or Rabbie Burns forby, is the naitional poet o Scotland. He scrieved in Scots, wi some Inglis influence whiles.

He is weel-kent as the naitional makar o Scotland, an his wark is celebratit athort the warld. He is the best kent o the mony makars that haes wrocht in the Scots leid, tho he screived mony poems in Inglis forby, an in a kin o licht Scots that can be easy read by fowk nae sae acquent wi Scots, within an furth o Scotland.

Burns is aften regairdit as a pioneer o the Romantic Muivement, an efter his deith he becam a symbol an important springheid o inspiration tae the foonders o baith Leiberalism an Socialism. He haes become a cultural icon o Scotland, baith in Scotland itsel an amang Scots that haes flittit tae fremmit airts.

Forby his ain componings, Burns ingaithert fowk sangs frae athort Scotland, aften revisin or adaptin thaim. The best kent o thir is Auld Lang Syne that's sang at Hogmanay, an Scots Wha Hae, that haes been seen whiles as a national anthem for Scotland. Ithers poems an sangs o his that bide weel kent athort the warld the day includes A Red, Red Rose, A Man's a Man for A' That, To a Louse, To a Mouse, The Battle of Sherramuir an Ae Fond Kiss.

Robert Burns wis born twa mile sooth o Ayr in Allowa, the auldest o seiven weans o William Burness (1721-1744) (Robert chynged the spellin o his name tae Burns in 1786), that wes a sel eddicated fermer frae Dunnottar an Agnes Broun (1732-1820), that wis the dochter o a fermer frae Kirkoswald.

Robert wis born intae a hoose that his faither haed biggit (nou the Burns Cottage Museum), qhaur he bydit intil Easter 1766, qhan he wis seiven year auld. William Burness selt the hoose an teuk the tenancy o the 70-acre Munt Oliphant ferm, sootheast o Allowa. Here Burns raxed up in puirtith an hairdskip, an the teuch haund wark o the ferm left traces in a premature stoup an a weakened constitution.

The young Burns haed but a tait o raiglar schuilin, an teuk muckle o his eddicatin frae his faither, that teachit his bairns readin, scrievan, arithmatic, geography an history, forby screivin fer thaim A Manual of Christian Belief. He wis learnt by John Murdoch an aw, that apent a schuil in Allowa in 1763 an learnt Laitin, French, an mathematics tae baith Robert an his brither Gilbert frae 1765 tae 1768 till Murdoch quat the pairish. Efter twa-thrie year o hame eddication Burns wis sent tae Dalrymple Parish Schuil durin the simmer o 1772, ere retourin at hairst time tae fou time ferm darg till 1773 qhan he wes sent tae wone wi Murdoch fer thrie week tae study grammar, French an Laitin.

By the eild o 15, Burns wes the heidmaist darger at Munt Oliphant. Durin the hairst o 1774 he wis assistit by Nelly Kilpatrick (1759-1820), that tiftit his first attempt at poesy, O, Once I Lov'd A Bonnie Lass. In the simmer o 1775 he wis sent tae feinish his eddication wi a tutor at Kirkowswald, qhaur he met wi Peggy Thomson, tae wham he scrievit twa sangs, Now Westlin' Winds an I Dreamed I Lay.

At Whitsun, 1777, William Burness remuivit his muckle faimily frae the fashfou condeetions o Munt Oliphant fer the 130-acre ferm at Lochlea, near Tarbolton, qhaur they bydit until Burness' daith in 1784. Efterhaun, the faimily became integratit intae the community o Tarbolton. Tae his faither's disapproval Robert jyned a kintra dancin schuil in 1779, an wi Gilbert shappit the Tarbolton Bachelor's Club the follaein year. In 1781, Burns became a Freemason at Lodge St. David, Tarbolton. His earliest existin letters date frae this time, whan be begoud makkin romantic overtures tae Alison Begbie. Despite fower sangs screived for her, an a suggestion that he wis wullin tae wad her, she rejectit him.

In December 1781, Burns flittit for a wee tae Irvine tae leir tae become a flax-dresser, but durin the Hogmanay celebrations o 1781/2, the flax shap caucht fire an wis daimiged eneuch tae send him hame tae Lochlea ferm.

He cairriet on screivin poems an sangs an begoud a Commonplace Beuk in 1783, while his faither focht a legal argie-bargie wi his landlaird. The case gaed tae the Coort o Session an Burness wis uphaudit in Januar 1784, a fortnicht ere he dee'd. Robert an Gilbert made an ineffectual strauchle tae keip on the ferm but efter it failt, thay flittit tae the ferm at Mossgiel, near Mauchline in Mairch, that thay haudit on tae wi a sair fecht for the neist fower year. Durin the simmer o 1784 he cam tae ken a curn o lassies kent thegither as The Belles o Mauchline, ane o wham wis Jean Armour, the dochter o a stanemason frae Mauchline.

Burns' casual luve affairs an houghmagandie didna endear him tae the elders o the local kirk an creatit for him a name for dissolution amang his neebours. His first illegitimate bairn, Elizabeth Paton Burns (1785-1817) wis born tae his mithir's servand, Elizabeth Paton as he wis stairtin oot on a relationship wi Jean Armour. She buir him twins in 1786, an tho her faither wis agin thair mairrage at first, thay wis wad in 1788. She buir him nine bairns in aw, but ainlie thrie won past infancy.

Durin his relationship wi Jean Armour in 1786 an as his prospecks in fermin dwynit, he begoud an amour wi Mary Campbell, tae wham he dedicatit the poems The Highland Lassie, O, Highland Mary an To Mary in Heaven. Thair relationship haes been the subjeck o muckle jalousin an it haes been suggestit that thay micht hae wad. Thay ettled tae flit tae Jamaicae, qhaur Burns ettled tae wark as a beuk-keeper on a plantation. He wis dissuadit by a letter frae Thomas Blacklock, an ere the plans coud be actit upo, Campbell dee'd o a suddentie o a fever in Greenock. That simmer, he set furth the first o his collections o poesy, Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, that creatit a sensation an haes been recognisit as a signeeficact leeterar event.

At the suggestion o his brither, Robert Burns set furth his poems in a buik cawed Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect kent as the Kilmarnock Edition an aw. First proposals wis pitten oot in Apryle 1786 or the poems wis at lang an last setten furth in Kilmarnock in July 1786 an selt for 3 shillin. Brocht oot by John Wilson, a local prenter in Kilmarnock it haed muckle o Burns' best screivans, includin The Twa Dogs, Address to the Deil, Hallowe'en, The Cotter's Saturday Night, To a Mouse, an To a Mountain Daisy - mony o qhilk haed been scrieved at Mossgiel ferm. The wark wis a speed straucht awa an Burns wis suin weel kent athort the kintra.

He wis inveetit tae Edinburgh on 14t December 1786 tae owersee the preperation o a reveesit edeetion, the first Edinburgh edeetion, by William Creech, that wis finally setten furth on 17t Apryle 1787 (athin ae week o this, Burns selt his copyricht tae Creech fer 100 guineas). In Edinburgh, he wis taen in as an equal by the ceety's weel kent leeterati an wis a guest at upper-cless gaitherins, qhaur he buir himsel wi unaffecktit mense. Here he met wi, an made a lastin impression on, the 16-year auld Walter Scott that later descrievit him wi great admiration:

His stay in the ceety resultit in some life-lang freendships, amang whilk wis thaim wi Laird Glencairn an Frances Anna Dunlop, that wis whiles his sponsor, wha wi he correspondit for the lave o his life. He begoud a relationship wi the seperatit Agnes 'Nancy' McLehose, wi whit he exchynged passionate luve letters unner bynames (Burns cawed himsel 'Sylvander' an Nancy 'Clarinda'). Whan it became clear that Nancy wadna be easily wooed intae a pheesical relationship, Burns muived on tae Jenny Clow, Nancy's hoose-servand, that buir him a son, Robert Burns Clow in 1788. His relationship wi Nancy endit in 1791 wi a hintmaist meetin in Edinburgh afore she sailt tae Jamaica for whit transpired tae be a short-lived reconcilin wi her estrynged guidman. Ere she quat Scotland, he gied her the manuscript o Ae Fond Kiss, as a fareweel tae her.

In Edinburgh in the winter o 1787 he met wi James Johnson, a strauchlin muisic engraver an muisic seller, wi a luve o auld Scots sangs an a determination tae preserve thaim. Burns skared this intrest an became an enthusiastic contreebutor tae The Scots Musical Museum. The first vollum o this wis setten furth in 1787 an includit three sangs by Burns. He contributit fowerty sangs tae Vollum II, an wad end up sponsible for aboot a third o the sax hunder sangs in the hail ingaitherin as weel as makkin a conseederable editorial contreebution. The hintmaist vollum wis setten furth in 1803.

Whan he retoured tae Ayrshire on 18t Februar 1788, he resumed his relationship wi Jean Armour an teuk a lease on the ferm o Ellisland near Dumfries on 18t Mairch (settlin there on 11t Juin), but trained as an exciseman shoud fermin conteena tae pruive unsuccessfu. He wis appyntit duties in Customs an Excise in 1789, an gied up the ferm in 1791. Meanwhile, he wis aye scrievin awa at his best, an in November 1790 haed feenisht Tam O' Shanter. Aboot this time he wis offered an turnt doun an appyntment in Lunnon on the staff o the Star newspaper, an refuised tae become a canditate for a newly-creatit Chair o Agricultur in the Varsity o Edinburgh, awtho influential freends offert tae uphaud his claims. Efter giein up his ferm he flittit tae Dumfries.

It wis at this time that, bein aksed tae scrieve leerics for The Melodies of Scotland, he respondit by contreebutin ower 100 sangs. He made major contreebutions tae George Thomson's A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs for the Voice as weel as tae James Johnson's The Scots Musical Museum. Argiably his claim tae immortality chiefly rests on thir vollums that pit him in the front raing o leeric makars. Burns descrieved hou he haed tae maister the tuin or he componed the wirds:

Burns wrocht tae gaither an preserve auld Scots fowk sangs an aw, whiles revisin, eikin tae an adaptin thaim. Ane o the better kent o thair gaitherins is The Merry Muses of Caledonia (the title's no Burns'), an ingaitherin o clarty leerics that wis kenspeckle in the muisic haws o Scotland as late as the 20t century. Mony o Burns' maist fawmous poems is sangs wi the muisic based upo aulder tradeetional sangs, for ensaumple Auld Lang Syne is setten tae a tradeetional tuin cawed Can Ye Labour Lea, A Red, Red Rose is setten tae Major Graham an The Battle of Sherramuir is setten tae The Cameronian Rant.

Burns' direct leeterar influences in the uise o Scots in poesy wis Allan Ramsay an Robert Fergusson. Burns' wark teuk tift frae a guid kennin o Clessical, Biblical an Inglis leeteratur an aw, as weel as the Scots makar tradeetion an the fowk poetry that he kent frae his bairnheid.
He wis skeily in uissin Scots an Scots Inglis, aften a mixter-maxter o the twa. Writtin in the Inglis leid or in a licht by-leid version o Scots gied him a readership furth o Scotland, alloued him tae chynge frae ane till anither for effect (as in his uise o Inglis for the moralisin pairts o Tam O' Shanter) or gin he wis needin the rhyme.

His themes includit Republicanism (he livit durin the time o the French Revolution) an Radicalism, that expressit in Scots Wha Hae, Scots paitriotism, anticlericism, cless inequalities, gender roles, commentary on the Scots Kirk o his time, Scots cultural identity, puirtith, sexuality an the guid side o popular socialisin (carousin, whisky, fowk sangs etc.). Burns an his warks wis a source o inspiration tae the pioneers o leeberalism, socialism an the darg for Scots sel-govrenment, an he is still widely respectit an aften quotit by poleetical activists the day, e'en by conservatives an estaiblishment feegurs acause syne his daith, Burns became drawn intae the fabric o Scots naitional identity. Aiblins it is this abeelity tae appeal tae aw strines o poleetical opeenion in Scotland that haes led tae him bein widely saw as the naitional makar.

He is for ordinar cawed a proto-Romantic poet, an he gied muckle tift tae William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge an Percy Bysshe Shelley. The Edinburgh literati warked tae sentimentalise Burns durin his life an efter his daith, dismissin his eddication by cawin him a heiven-teachit pleuchman. Burns wad influence later Scots screivers, speicially Hugh MacDiarmid that fechtit tae brak doun the sentimental cult that dominatit Scots leeteratur in MacDiarmid's opeenion.

Here are the maist kent poems o Robert Burns:

As his heil begoud tae gie wey Burns stairtit tae age early an fawed intae fits o dule. His drinkin habits didna help this, an in July 21, 1796 he dee'd at Dumfries at the young eild o 37. He wis yirdit fower day efter, the samin day that his son Maxwell wis born. A memorial edeetion o his warks wis set furth tae raise siller for his guidwife an bairns, an athin a wee time efter his daith, siller cam in frae athort Scotland tae support thaim.

The fowksangster Ewan MacColl sang a lot o sangs bi Robert Burns on a record cried Songs of Robert Burns.




#Article 30: William Wallace (130 words)


Sir William Wallace (born aroond 1272 – 23 August 1305) wis the leader o the Scots airmy agin the Inglis for the first pairt o the Scots Weirs for Unthirldom an wis the Gairdian o Scotland frae 1297 til 1298. Wallace wis born in Elderslie, Renfrewshire an wis eddicatit at some time in his early years at the High Schuil o Dundee. Some soorces suggest his faither wis cawed Malcolm an ithers say his faither's name wis Alan. Wallace is thocht tae hae haed twa brithers whas names war John an Malcom.

He led the Scots airmy in the Battle o Stirlin Brig an the Battle o Fawkirk. He wis begowkit then executit by the Inglis laird King Edward I. Sir William Wallace wis kilt by hanging, drawing, an quarterin.




#Article 31: Adam Smith (107 words)


Adam Smith (bapteised 5 Juin 1723 – 17 Julie 1790) wis a Scots economist, philosopher an screiver o the Wealth of Nations an o the Theory of Moral Sentiments. Born in Kirkcaudy, he wis muckle figur o the Scots Enlichtment, an is kent as the Faither o Economics or the Faither o Caipitalism an aw.

Fowk say that Smith's argumentations mak him the faither o laissez-faire, free mercat caipitalism; howsomever, ithers argue this haes been ower-blawn, as Smith did support limited govrenment regulations. 

Adam Smith's heid is on the Baunk o Ingland £20 note (the first Scotsman on an Inglis baunknote) an the Clydesdale Baunk £50 note.




#Article 32: Tony Blair (117 words)


The Richt Honourable Anthony Charles Lynton Blair (born on the 6t o Mey 1953 in Edinburrie), for ordinar kent as Tony Blair, wis the Prime Meenister o the Unitit Kinrick frae 1997 tae 2007. He wis the first Prime Meenister frae the Labour Pairty tae hiv haed three consecutive terms in govrenment.

He demittit frae office as Prime Meenister on 27 Juin 2007 an haundit ower pouer tae the new leader o the Breetish Labour Pairty, Gordon Brown. On the same day, he demittit as a Member o Pairlament (for the Sedgefield consteetuency) an wis appyntit as a peace envoy tae the Middle Aest bi the Quartet o the Unitit States, Unitit Nations, European Union and Roushie.




#Article 33: Sunday (492 words)


Sunday is the day o the week atween Setturday an Monanday, an the seicont day o the weekend in some culturs. It is thocht on as a haliday in kintras wi a Christian tradeetion, an is the day that Christians maist aften gangs tae the Kirk.

In the Gregorian calendar, nae century can stairt on a Sunday. In the Hebrew calendar, ae towmond can stairt on a Sunday. Ony month that begis wi a Sunday will hae a Friday the 13t in't.

In Scots, Sunday comes fae Sunne, the Germanic sun goddess.

In the aforegane Jewish tradeetion Setturday is the sawbath. Mony leids disnae hie sindert wirds for Setturday an sawbath. The Eastren Orthodox kirks maks a differ atween the sawbath (Setturday) an the Laird's day (Sunday). Roman Catholics pits sicna wee bit emphasis on that disteenction that mony amang them follaes — at least in iveryday langage — the Protestant practice o cryin Sunday the sawbath. Quakers tradeetionally cries Sunday the First Day eschewing the heathen oreegin o the name.

In mony kintras, includin the maist o Europe an Sooth Americae (but Brazil), Sunday is hauden tae be the hindermaist day o the week. In ithers, includin the Unitit States, it is seen as the first day, a tradeetional view that comes fae auncient Jews, Egyptians an the Haly Roman Empire. ISO 8601 defines Monanday as the first day o the week, makkin Sunday the sievent.

Sunday is thocht on as bein haly amang maist Christians an aften a day o rest an for gangin tae the kirk. Houiver, fae Friday gloamin tae Setturday gloamin is whan God makde it a haly day o rest, Sawbath.

In orthodox Christian families an communities some activities isna duin, e.g. wirkin, daein somethin at needs anither body tae wirk sic as buyin guids or services (includin the uiss o public transport), drivin a caur, gairdenin, giein the caur a wash, etc. Some exceptions is alloud, an thay are makkin uiss o releegious services, an, for ordinar, uisin electricity, an urgent medical maiters.

In the Unitit States, professional fitbaw is for ordinar played on Sunday, tho Setturday an Monanday (bi wey o Monanday Nicht Fitbaw) haes some professional gemmes an aw. Varsity fibaw for ordinar gaes on on Setturday, an heich schuil fitbaw tends tae gae on on Friday. It isna uncommon for kirk-gangin tae muive on days whan a late mornin or early efternuin gemme is anticipatit bi a local commonty.

Aside thon in the United States, mony federal govrenment biggins is steekit on Sunday. Privately awned businesses tends tae close or is open for shorter periods o the day than on ither days o the week an aw.

Mony American an Breetish telly netwerks an stations braidcasts thair poleetical interview shaws on Sunday mornins an aw.

Mony American an Breetish daily newspapers sets furth a lairger edeetion on Sundays that aften haes colour comic strips in it, a magazine, an a coupon section.




#Article 34: Ingland (357 words)


Ingland  is a kintra that is pairt o the Unitit Kinrick.

The name Ingland cums frae the Auld Inglis name Engla (or Angla) land, whilka daes mein laund o the Angles. The Angles a war ane o the Germanic tribes wha sattelt in Great Breetain in the Aerlie Middil Eilds. The Angles cam frae the Angeln hauf-iland in the Bay o Kiel aurie. Cordin til the Oxford English Dictionary, the farst kent uiss o Ingland referrin til the soothren pairt o the iland o Greit Britain wis in 897, an its modren Inglis spellin wis farst bruikit in 1538.

The etymologie o the tribal name itsel is argiet bi skolarts; it haes been jalousit that it cums frae the shape o the Angeln hauf-iland, an angular shape. Hou an why a term derivit frae the name o a tribe that wis less significant than ithers, sic as the Saxons, cam ti be bruikit for the hail kintra an its fowk is unkent, but it seems this is relatit til the custom o cawin the Germanic fowk in Britain Angli Saxones or Inglis Saxons.

An alternativ name for Ingland is Albion. The name Albion originalie referrit til the hail iland o Greit Britain. The aerliest record o the name kyths in the Aristotelitian Corpus, specificalie the 4t yeirhunder BC: Ayont the Pillars o Hercules is the oshian that flowes aroond the Yird. In it ar twa gey mukkil ilands caw'd Britannia; thir ar Albion an Ierne. The wird Albion (Ἀλβίων) or insula Albionum haes twa possibil springheids. It ither cums frae the Laitin albus meinin white, a referenss til the white cliffs o Dover, whilka is the farst sicht o Britain frae the European Continent. Anither springheid is suggestit bi the aunshient mertshand's haundbuik Massaliote Periplus, whilka mentions an iland o the Albiones.

A lot o historic Ingland's enemies, as the French, the Scots an aw, refer sumtyms til Ingland as Perfidious Albion, (La Perfide Albion in French). This is an anglofobic name whilka seems ti be naitionalist an maistlins racist, the-day. But etymologicalie, perfidious anerlie meins: whilka or wha disnae kep its, his or hir hecht, promiss.




#Article 35: Lunnon (11078 words)


Lunnon (, ) is the caipital an maist populous ceety o Ingland an the Unitit Kinrick. Staunin on the River Thames, Lunnon haes been a major dounset for twa millennia, its history that gangs back tae its foundin bi the Romans, wha named it Londinium. Lunnon's auncient core, the Ceety o Lunnon, lairgely retains its  medieval boundaries an in 2011 haed a resident population o 7,375, makin it the smawest ceety in Ingland. Syne the 19t century or mair, the term Lunnon haes referred tae the metropolis developed aroond this core an aa. The bulk o this conurbation forms the Greater Lunnon admeenistrative aurie (coterminous wi the Lunnon region), govrened bi the Mayor o Lunnon an the Lunnon Assembly.

Lunnon is a leadin global ceety, wi strenths in the arts, commerce, eddication, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research an development, tourism, an transport aw contributing tae its prominence. It is ane o the warld's leadin financial centres an haes the fift-or saxt-lairgest metropolitan aurie GDP in the warld dependin on measurement. Lunnon is a warld cultural caipital. It is the warld's maist-visitit ceety as measured by international arrivals an haes the warld's lairgest ceety airport system measured bi passenger traffic. Lunnon's 43 varsities form the lairgest concentration o higher education institutes in Europe. In 2012, Lunnon became the first ceety tae host the modren Simmer Olympic Gemmes three times.

Lunnon haes a diverse range o fowk an culturs, an mair nor 300 leids is spoken wiin Greater Lunnon. The Greater Lunnon Authority estimatit its population tae be 8.63 million in 2015, the lairgest o ony municipality in the European Union, an accoonting for 12.5 percent o the UK population. Lunnon's urban aurie is the seicont maist populous in the EU, efter Paris, wi 9,787,426 indwallers accordin tae the 2011 census. The ceety's metropolitan aurie is the ane o the maist populous in Europe wi 13,614,409 indwallers, while the Greater Lunnon Authority pits the population o Lunnon metropolitan region at 21 million.
Lunnon wis the warld's maist populous ceety frae aroond 1831 tae 1925.

Lunnon conteens fower Warld Heritage Steids: the Touer o Lunnon; Kew Gardens; the site comprisin the Pailace o Wastmeenster, Westminster Abbey, an St Margaret's Kirk; an the historic dounset o Greenwich (in whilk the Royal Observatory, Greenwich marks the Prime Meridian, 0° langitude, an GMT). Ither famous laundmerks include Buckingham Palace, the Lunnon Ee, Piccadilly Circus, St Paul's Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar squerr, an The Shard. Lunnon is home tae numerous museums, galleries, libraries, sporting events an ither cultural institutions, includin the British Museum, National Gallery, Tate Modern, British Library an 40 West End theatres. The Lunnon Unnergrund is the auldest unnerground railway network in the warld.

The etymology o Lunnon is uncertain. It is an auncient name, foond in soorces frae the 2nt century. It is recorded c. 121 as Londinium, that pynts tae Romano-British origin. The earliest attemptit explanation, nou disregarded, is attributit tae Geoffrey o Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae. This haed it that the name originatit frae a supposed Keeng Lud, wha haed allegedly takken ower the ceety an named it Kaerlud.

Frae 1898, it wis commonly acceptit that the name wis o Celtic origin an meant place belangin tae a man cawed *Londinos; this explication haes syne been rejeckit. Richard Coates pit forrit an explication in 1998 that it is derived frae the pre-Celtic Auld European *(p)lowonida, meanin 'burn ower wide for tae ford', an suggestit that this wis a name gien tae the pairt o the River Thames that rins throu Lunnon; frae this, the dounset gained the Celtic form o its name, *Lowonidonjon; this requires quite a serious amendment houiver. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium wi the modren Welsh Llundain, that should demand a form *(h)lōndinion (as opposed tae *londīnion), frae earlier *loundiniom. The possibility canna be ruled oot that the Welsh name wis borrowed back in frae Inglis at a later date, an for that raison canna be uised as a basis frae that tae reconstruct the oreeginal name.

Til 1889, the name Lunnon offeecially anerly applee'd tae the Ceety o Lunnon but syne then it haes referred tae the Coonty o Lunnon, an nou Greater Lunnon an aa.

Twa recent discoveries indicate probable vera auld settlements near the Thames in the Lunnon aurie. In 1999, the remains o a Bronze Age bridge war foond on the foreshore north o Vauxhall Bridge. This brig aither gaed athort the Thames, or gaed tae a nou lost island in the burn. Dendrology datit the timbers tae 1500 BC. In 2010 the foundations o a lairge timmer structur, datit tae 4500 BC, war foond on the Thames foreshore, sooth o Vauxhall Bridge. The function o the mesolithic structur is nae kent. Baith structures are on South Bank, at a naitural crossin pynt whaur the River Effra flows intae the River Thames.

Tho thare is evidence o scattered Brythonic settlements in the aurie, the first major dounset wis foondit bi the Romans efter the invasion o 43 AD. This anerly lastit til aroond 61, whan the Iceni tribe led bi Queen Boudica stormed it, burning it tae the grund. The next, heivy planned, incarnation o Londinium prospered an superseded Colchester as the caipital o the Roman province o Britannia in 100. At its hicht in the 2nt century, Roman Lunnon haed a population o aroond 60,000.

Wi the collapse o Roman rule in the early 5t century, Lunnon ceased tae be a caipital an the walled ceety o Londinium wis effectively abandoned, awtho Roman civilisation continued in the St Martin-in-the-Fields aurie until aroond 450. Frae aroond 500, an Anglo-Saxon dounset kent as Lundenwic developed in the same aurie, slichtly tae the wast o the auld Roman ceety. By aboot 680, it haed revived sufficiently tae acome a major port, awtho thare is little evidence o lairge-scale production o goods. Frae the 820s the toun declined acause o repeatit Viking invasions. Thare three recordit Viking assaults on Lunnon; twa o whilk wis wun tae in 851 an 886 AD, tho thay war defeatit in the attack o 994 AD.

The Vikings established Denlaw ower a fair feck o the eastren an northren pairt o Ingland wi its mairch gaun frae aboot Lunnon tae Chester. It wis an aurie o political an geographical control imposed bi the Viking incursions that wis formally agreed tae bi the Dens warlord, Guthrum an wast-Saxon keeng, Alfred the Great in 886 AD. Denlaw lastit in mony pairts o Ingland for centuries tae come. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recordit that Lunnon wis refounded by Alfred the Great in 886. Archaeological research shows that this involved abandonment o Lundenwic an a revival o life an tred wiin the auld Roman walls. Lunnon then grew slowly until aboot 950, efter whilk activity increased dramatically.

Bi the 11t century, Lunnon wis ayont aw comparison the lairgest toun in Ingland. Wastmeenster Abbey, rebiggit in the Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor, wis ane o the grandest kirks in Europe. Winchester haed aforehaun been the caipital o Anglo-Saxon Ingland, but frae this time on, Lunnon acame the main forum for foreign traders an the base for defence in time o war. In the view o Frank Stenton: It had the resources, an it was rapidly developing the dignity an the political self-consciousness appropriate tae a national capital.

Follaein his victory in the Battle o Hastings, William, Duke o Normandy, wis crowned Keeng o Ingland in the newly finished Wastmeenster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. William biggit the Touer o Lunnon, the first o the mony Norman castles in Ingland tae be rebuilt in stone, in the sootheastren corner o the ceety, tae intimidate the native indwallers. In 1097, William II began the biggin o Wastmeenster Hall, close bi the abbey o the same name. The hall acame the basis o a new Pailace o Wastmeenster.

During the 12t century, the institutions o central government, whilk haed hitherto accompanied the ryal Inglis court as it moved aroond the kintra, grew in size an sophistication an acame increasingly fixed in ane place. In maist cases this wis Wastmeenster, awtho the ryal treasury, haein been moved frae Winchester, came tae rest in the Tower. While the Ceety o Wastmeenster developed intae a true caipital in governmental terms, its distinct neighbour, the ceety o Lunnon, remained Ingland's lairgest ceety an principal commercial centre, an it flourished unner its ain unique admeenistration, the Corporation o Lunnon. In 1100, its population wis aroond 18,000; by 1300 it haed grown tae nearly 100,000.

Disaster struck during the Black Death in the mid-14t century, when Lunnon lost nearly a third o its population. Lunnon wis the focus o the Peasants' Revolt in 1381.

During the Tudor period the Reformation produced a gradual shift tae Protestantism, wi much o Lunnon passin frae kirk tae private ainership. The traffic in woollen cloths shipped undyed an undressed frae Lunnon tae the nearby shores o the Law Kintras whaur it wis considered indispensable. But the tentacles o English maritime enterprise hardly extendit beyond the seas o north-wast Europe. The commercial route tae Italy an the Mediterranean Sea normally lay throu Antwerp an ower the Alps; ony ships passing throu the Strait o Gibraltar tae or frae England war likely tae be Italian or Ragusan. Upon the re-openin o the Netherlands tae English shipping in Januar 1565 thare at ance ensued a strang outburst o commercial activity. The Royal Exchange wis foondit. Mercantilism grew an monopoly trading companies sic as the East Indie Company war established, wi tred expanding tae the New World. Lunnon acame the principal North Sea port, wi migrants arrivin frae England an abroad. The population rose frae an estimatit 50,000 in 1530 tae aboot 225,000 in 1605.

In the 16t century, William Shakespeare an his contemporaries lived in Lunnon at a time o hostility tae the development o the theatre. By the end o the Tudor period in 1603, Lunnon wis still vera compact. Thare wis an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster, throu the Gunpowder Plot on 5 November 1605. Lunnon wis plagued by disease in the early 17t century, culminatin in the Great Plague o 1665–1666, whilk killt up tae 100,000 bodies, or a fift o the population.

The Great Fire o Lunnon broke oot in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the ceety an quickly swept throu the widden biggins. Rebiggin teuk ower ten year an wis supervised by Robert Hooke as Surveyor o Lunnon. In 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral wis completit. During the Georgian era new destricts sic as Mayfair war formed in the wast; an new brigs ower the Thames encouraged development in South Lunnon. In the east, the Port o Lunnon expanded downstream.

In 1762, George III acquired Buckingham House an it wis enlairged ower the next 75 year. During the 18t century, Lunnon wis dogged by crime an the Bow Street Runners war established in 1750 as a professional police force. In tot, mair nor 200 offences war punishable by death, includin petty theft. Most childer born in the ceety died afore reakin thair third birthday. The coffeehouse became a popular place tae debate ideas, wi growin literacy an the development o the prentin press makkin news widely available; an Fleet Street became the centre o the British press.

Accordin tae Samuel Johnson:

Lunnon wis the warld's lairgest ceety frae aboot 1831 tae 1925. Lunnon's overcrowded conditions led tae cholera epidemics, claimin 14,000 lifes in 1848, an 6,000 in 1866. risin traffic congestion led tae the creation o the warld's first local urban rail network. The Metropolitan Board o Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the caipital an some surroondin counties; it wis abolished in 1889 when the Lunnon County cooncil wis creatit oot o those auries o the counties surroondin the caipital. Lunnon wis bombed bi the Germans during the First World War while during the Seicont World War the Blitz an ither bombin bi the German Luftwaffe killed ower 30,000 Lunnoners an destroyed lairge tracts o housing an ither biggins athort the ceety. Immediately efter the war, the 1948 Simmer Olympics war held at the oreeginal Wembley Stadium, at a time when Lunnon haed barely recovered frae the war.

In 1951, the Festeeval o Britain wis held on the Sooth Bank. The Great Smog o 1952 led tae the Clean Air Act 1956, that endit the pea soup fogs for whilk Lunnon haed been notorious. Frae the 1940s onwart, Lunnon became hame tae numerous immigrants, lairgely frae Commonweel countries lik Jamaica, Indie, Bangladesh an Pakistan, makkin Lunnon ane o the maist diverse ceeties in Europe.

Primarily stairtin in the mid-1960s, Lunnon acame a centre for the warldwide youth cultur, exemplified bi the Swinging Lunnon subculture associatit wi the Keeng's Road, Chelsea an Carnaby Street. The role o trendsetter wis revived in the punk era. In 1965 Lunnon's political boundaries wis expandit tae tak intae accoont the growthe o the urban aurie an a new Greater Lunnon cooncil wis creatit. Throu The Troubles in Northren Ireland, Lunnon wis subjectit tae bombin attacks bi the Provisional IRA. Racial inequality wis hielichtit bi the 1981 Brixton riot.

Greater Lunnon's population declined steadily in the decades efter the Seicont World War, frae an estimatit peak o 8.6 million in 1939 tae aroond 6.8 million in the 1980s. The principal ports for Lunnon moved downstream tae Felixstowe an Tilbury, wi the Lunnon Docklands aurie acomin a focus for regeneration, includin the Canary Wharf development. This wis borne oot o Lunnon's ever-increasin role as a major international financial centre during the 1980s. The Thames Barrier wis completit in the 1980s tae pertect Lunnon against tidal surges frae the North Sea.

The Greater Lunnon cooncil wis abolished in 1986, whilk left Lunnon as the anerly lairge metropolis in the warld wioot a central admeenistration. In 2000, Lunnon-wide govrenment wis restored, wi the creation o the Greater Lunnon Authority. tae celebrate the stairt o the 21st century, the Millennium Dome, Lunnon Eye an Millennium Bridge war biggit. On 6 Julie 2005 Lunnon wis awairdit the 2012 Simmer Olympics, makkin Lunnon the first ceety tae stage the Olympic Gemmes three times. The naxt day (7 Julie 2005) Lunnon's tube network wis hit bi major bomb attacks. In Februar 2015, Greater Lunnon's population wis estimatit tae be 8.6 million, the heichest level syne 1939.

The admeenistration o Lunnon is formed o twa tiers—a ceety-wide, strategic tier an a local tier. ceety-wide admeenistration is coordinatit bi the Greater Lunnon Authority (GLA), while local admeenistration is carried oot by 33 smawer authorities. The GLA consists o twa electit components; the Mayor o Lunnon, wha haes executive powers, an the Lunnon Assembly, whilk scrutinises the mayor's decisions an can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals ilka year.
The headquarters o the GLA is City Hall, Southwark; the mayor is Sadiq Khan. The mayor's statutory planning strategy is published as the Lunnon Plan, whilk daed it's maist recent revision in 2011. The local authorities are the cooncils o the 32 Lunnon boroughs an the City o Lunnon Corporation. Thay are responsible for maist local services, sic as local planning, schuils, social services, local roads an refuse collection. Certaint functions, sic as waste management, are providit throu jynt arrangements. In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by Lunnon cooncils an the GLA amountit tae juist ower £22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs an £7.4 billion for the GLA). The ceety o Lunnon haes its ain police force – the City o Lunnon Police. The British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail an Lunnon Unnergrund services.

The Lunnon Fire Brigade is the statutory fire an rescue service for Greater Lunnon. It is run bi the Lunnon Fire an Emergency Planning Authority an is the third lairgest fire service in the warld. National Health Service ambulance services are providit bi the Lunnon Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the lairgest free-at-the-pynt-o-uise emergency ambulance service in the warld. The Lunnon Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction wi the LAS whaur required. Her Majesty's Coastguard an the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on the River Thames, whilk is unner the jurisdiction o the Port o Lunnon Authority frae Teddington Lock tae the sea.

Lunnon is the seat o the Govrenment o the Unitit Kinrick. Mony govrenment departments are based close tae the Pailace o Wastmeenster, parteecularly alang Whitehall, includin the Prime Minister's residence at 10 Downing Street. The British Parliament is eften referred tae as the Mother o Parliaments (awtho this sobriquet wis first applied tae England itself by John Bright) acause it haes been the model for maist ither parliamentary systems. Thare are 73 Members o Parliament (MPs) frae Lunnon, who correspond tae local parliamentary constituencies in the national Parliament. As o Juin 2017, 49 are frae the Labour Party, 21 are Conservatives, an 3 are Liberal Democrat.

Greater Lunnon is the tap-level administrative subdiveesion coverin Lunnon. The wee, ancient City o Lunnon at its core ance contained the hale dounset, but as the urban aurie grew the City Corporation resistit attemps tae amalgamate it wi its suburbs, causin Lunnon tae be defined in a nummer weys for different purposes. Forty per cent o Greater Lunnon is covered bi the Lunnon post toun, wiin whilk 'Lunnon' forms pairt o postal addresses.

The Lunnon telephone aurie code (020) covers a lairger aurie, seemilar in size tae Greater Lunnon, awtho some outer destricts are omeetit an some places juist ootside are included. The Greater Lunnon boundary haes been aligned tae the M25 motorway in places.

Outward urban expansion is nou preventit bi the Metropolitan Green Belt,  awtho the biggit-up aurie extends beyond the boundary in places, resultin in a separately defined Greater Lunnon Urban aurie. Beyond this is the vast Lunnon commuter belt. Greater Lunnon is split for some purposes intae Inner Lunnon an Outer Lunnon. The ceety is split bi the River Thames intae North an South, wi an informal central Lunnon aurie in its interior. The coordinates o the nominal centre o Lunnon, tradeetionally considered tae be the oreeginal Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction o Trafalgar squerr an Whitehall, are approximately .

Athin Lunnon, baith the City o Lunnon an the City o Westminster hae ceety status an baith the ceety o Lunnon an the remainder o Greater Lunnon is the ceremonial counties. The aurie o Greater Lunnon haes incorporatit auries that war ance pairt o the historic counties o Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex an Hertfordshire. Lunnon's status as the caipital o England, an later the Unitit Kinrick, haes never been grantit or confirmed offeecially—by statute or in written form.

Its poseetion wis formed throu constitutional convention, makkin its status as de facto caipital a pairt o the UK's unwritten constitution. The caipital o Ingland wis moved tae Lunnon frae Winchester as the Pailace o Wastmeenster developed in the 12t an 13t centuries tae acome the permanent location o the royal court, an sicweys the political caipital o the naition. Mair recently, Greater Lunnon haes been defined as a region o England an in this context is kent as Lunnon.

Greater Lunnon encompasses a tot aurie o , an aurie that haed a population o 7,172,036 in 2001 an a population density o . The extendit aurie kent as the Lunnon Metropolitan Region or the Lunnon Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a tot aurie o  haes a population o 13,709,000 an a population density o .  Modern Lunnon stauns on the Thames, its primary geographical featur, a navigable river whilk crosses the ceety frae the sooth-wast tae the east. The Thames Valley is a floodplain surroondit by gently rolling hills includin Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, an Primrose Hill. The Thames wis ance a fair bit broader, shallaer burn wi extensive marshlands; at heich tide, its shores reakit five times thair present width.

Syne the Victorian era the Thames haes been extensively embanked, an mony o its Lunnon tributaries nou flow unnerground. The Thames is a tidal river, an Lunnon is vulnerable tae flooding. The threat haes increased ower time acause o a slaw but continuous rise in heich watter level bi the slow 'tilting' o Britain (up in the north an doun in the sooth) caused by post-glacial rebound.

In 1974, a decade o work began on the construction o the Thames Barrier athort the Thames at Woolwich tae deal wi this threat. While the barrier is expectit tae function as designed til aboot 2070, concepts for its future enlairgement or redesign is awready bein discussed.

Lunnon haes a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb#x202f;), seemilar tae aw o soothren Britain. Maugre its reputation as bein a rainy ceety, Lunnon receives less precipitation ( in a year), than Roum, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Naples an even Sydney in Australie. Temperature extremes for aw sites in the Lunnon aurie range frae  at Kew during August 2003  doun tae  at Northolt during Januar 1962.

Simmers are generally warm an whiles het, Lunnon's average Julie heich is . On average, Lunnon will see 31 days abuin  ilka year, an 4.2 days abuin  ilka year. Throu the 2003 European heat wave thare war 14 consecutive days abuin  an 2 consecutive days whaur temperatures reakit , leadin tae hunners o heat relatit daiths. Winters are generally cuil an damp wi little temperature variation. Snowfall daes occur frae time tae time, an can cause traivel disruption whan this happens. Spring an hairst are mixed seasons an can be leesome. As a lairge ceety, Lunnon haes a considerable urban heat island effect, makkin the centre o Lunnon at times  warmer than the suburbs an outskirts. The effect o this can be seen ablo whan comparin Lunnon Heathrow that is locatit 15 mile wast o Lunnon wi the Lunnon Weather Centre that is locatit in the centre o Lunnon.

Lunnon's vast urban aurie is aften describit uisin a set o destrict names, lik Bloomsbury, Mayfair, Wembley an Whitechapel. Thay are aither informal designations, reflect the names o villages that hae been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units sic as parishes or umwhile boroughs.

Siclike names hae remained in uise throu tradeetion, ilk o thaim referrin tae a local aurie wi its ain distinctive character, but wioot official boundaries. Syne 1965 Greater Lunnon haes been dividit intae 32 Lunnon boroughs in addition tae the ancient ceety o Lunnon. The ceety o Lunnon is the main financial destrict, an Canary Wharf haes recently developed intae a new financial an commercial hub in the Docklands tae the east.

The West End is Lunnon's main entertainment an shoppin destrict, attracting tourists. West Lunnon includes expensive residential auries whaur properties can sell for tens o millions o pounds. The average price for properties in Kensington an Chelsea is ower £2 million wi a seimilarly heich outlay in maist o central Lunnon.

The East End is the aurie closest tae the oreeginal Port o Lunnon, kent for its heich immigrant population, as weel as for bein ane o the poorest auries in Lunnon. The surroondin East Lunnon aurie saw a fair bit o Lunnon's early industrial development; nou, brownfield sites throughout the aurie are bein redeveloped as pairt o the Thames Gateway includin the Lunnon Riverside an Lower Lea Valley, that wis developed intae the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics an Paralympics.

Lunnon's biggins are ower diverse tae be characterised by ony parteecular architectural style, partly acause o thair varyin ages. Mony grand houses an public biggins, sic as the National Gallery, are biggit frae Portland stone. Some auries o the ceety, parteecularly those juist wast o the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed biggins. Few structures in central Lunnon pre-date the Great Fire o 1666, thir bein a few trace Roman remains, the Tower o Lunnon an a few scattered Tudor survivors in the ceety. Faur oot is, for insample, the Tudor period Hampton Court Palace, England's auldest surviving Tudor palace, biggit by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey c. 1515.
Wren's late 17t-century kirks an the financial institutions o the 18t an 19t centuries lik the Royal Exchange an the Bank o England, tae the early 20t century Old Bailey an the 1960s Barbican Estate form pairt o the varied architectural heritage.

The disuised, but suin tae be rejuvenated, 1939 Battersea Power Station bi the burn in the sooth-wast is a local laundmerk, while some railway termini are excellent insamples o Victorian architecture, maist notably St. Pancras an Paddington. The density o Lunnon varies, wi heich employment density in the central aurie, heich residential densities in inner Lunnon an laicher densities in Outer Lunnon.

The Monument in the ceety o Lunnon provides views o the surroondin aurie while commemoratin the Great Fire o Lunnon, whilk originatit fae a biggin naurhaun. Marble Arch an Wellington Arch, at the north an sooth ends o Park Lane respectively, hae royal connections, as dae the Albert Memorial an Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar squerr, ane o the focal pynts o the ceety centre. Older biggins are mainly brick biggit, maist commonly the yellae Lunnon stock brick or a warm orange-red variety, eften decoratit wi carvings an white plaster mouldings.

In the dense auries, maist o the concentration is via medium- an heich-rise biggins. Lunnon's skyscrapers lik 30 St Mary Axe, Tower 42, the Broadgate Tower an One Canada squerr are maistly in the twa financial destricts, the City o Lunnon an Canary Wharf. High-rise development is restrictit at certaint sites if it wad obstruct pertectit views o St Paul's Cathedral an ither historic biggins. Housomeiver, thare a nummer o verra heich skyscrapers in central Lunnon (see Tall biggins in Lunnon), includin the 72-storey Shard Lunnon Bridge, the heichest biggin in the European Union.

Other notable modern biggins include City Hall in Southwark wi its distinctive oval shape, an the British Library in Somers Town/Kings Cross. What wis formerly the Millennium Dome, bi the Thames tae the east o Canary Wharf, is nou an entertainment venue cried The O2 Arena.

The Lunnon Natural History Society suggest that Lunnon is one o the World's Greenest ceeties wi mair nor 40 percent green space or open watter. Thay indicate that 2000 species o flowering plant hae been foond growin thare an that the tidal Thames supports 120 species o fish. Thay forby state that ower 60 species o bird nest in central Lunnon an that thair members hae recordit 47 species o butterflee, 1173 moths an mair nor 270 kinds o speeder aroond Lunnon. Lunnon's wetland auries support nationally important populations o mony watter birds. Lunnon haes 38 Sites o Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), twa National Nature Reserves an 76 Local Nature Reserves.

Amphibians are common in the caipital, includin smooth newts livin bi the Tate Modern, an common frogs, common toads, palmate newts an great crestit newts, housamiver, native reptiles lik slow-worms, common lizards, grass snakes an adders, are maistly anly seen in outer Lunnon.

Amang ither indwallers o Lunnon are 10,000 tods, sae that thare are nou 16 tods for every squerr mile (2.6 squerr kilometres) o Lunnon. Thir urban tods are noticeably bolder than thair kintra cousins, sharin the pavement (sidewalk) wi pedestrians an raisin cubs in people's backyards. Tods hae even sneaked intae the Houses o Parliament, whaur ane wis foond asleep on a filing cabinet. Anither broke intae the grunds o Buckingham Palace, reportedly killin some o Queen Elizabeth II's prized pink flamingos. Generally, housamiver, tods an ceety folk appear tae get alang. A survey in 2001 bi the Lunnon-based Mammal Society foond that 80 percent o Lunnoners liked haein them aroond.

Other mammals foond in Greater Lunnon are hedgehogs, rats, mice, rabbit, shrew, vole, an squirrels,  In wilder auries o Outer Lunnon, sic as Epping Forest, a wide variety o mammals are foond includin hare, brock, field, bank an watter laund-moose, wid moose, yellae-neck moose, mowdiwarp, shrew, an wheasel, in addition tae tod, squirrel an hurcheon.  A deid otter wis foond at The Highway, in Wapping, aboot a mile frae the Tower Bridge, that wad suggest that thay hae begun tae muive back efter bein absence a hunner year frae the ceety. Ten o England's eighteen species o bats hae been recorded in Epping Forest: soprano, nathusius an common pipistrelles, noctule, serotine, barbastelle, daubenton's, brown Long-eared, natterer's an leisler's.

Amang the strange sights seen in Lunnon hae been a whale in the Thames, while The BBC Twa programme Natural World: Unnatural History o Lunnon, shaws pigeons uisin the Lunnon Unnergrund tae get aroond the ceety, a seal that taks fish frae fishmongers athoot Billingsgate Fish Market, an tods that will sit gif thay're gien sausages.

Herds o red an fallow deer roam freely wiin hantle o Richmond an Bushy Park. A cull takes place ilk November an Februar tae ensure nummers can be sustained. Epping Forest is kent for its fallow deer an aa, whilk can frequently be seen in herds tae the north o the Forest. A rare population o melanistic, black fallow deer is forby maintained at the Deer Sanctuary near Theydon Bois. Muntjac deer, that escaped frae deer parks at the turn o the twentieth century, are foond in the wid. While Lunnoners are accustomed tae wildlife sic as birds an tods sharin the ceety, mair recently urban deer hae acomin a regular featur, an hale herds o fallow an white tailed deer come intae residential auries at nicht tae tak advantage o the Lunnon's green spaces. Thare are in Lunnon mony muntjak deer an aa, but acause thay are shy it is less common tae see them.

Wi increasin industrialisation, Lunnon's population grew rapidly outthrou the 19t an early 20t centuries, an it wis for some time in the late 19t an early 20t centuries the maist populous ceety in the warld. Its population peaked at 8,615,245 in 1939 immediately afore the outbreak o the Seicont World War, but haed declined tae 7,192,091 at the 2001 Census. Housamiver, the population then grew by juist ower a million atween the 2001 an 2011 Censuses, tae reak 8,173,941 in the latter enumeration.

Houiver, Lunnon's continuous urban aurie extends ayont the borders o Greater Lunnon an wis home tae 9,787,426 people in 2011, while its wider metropolitan aurie haes a population o atween 12 an 14 million dependin on the definition uised. Accordin tae Eurostat, Lunnon is the maist populous ceety an metropolitan aurie o the European Union an the seicont maist populous in Europe (or third if Istanbul is included). in the period 1991–2001 a net 726,000 immigrants arrived in Lunnon.

The region covers an aurie o . The population density is ,  mair nor ten times that o ony ither . In terms o population, Lunnon is the 19t mucklemaist ceety an the 18t mucklemaist metropolitan region in the warld. As o 2014, Lunnon haes the mucklemaist nummer o billionaires (British Pound Sterling) in the warld, wi 72 residing in the ceety. Lunnon ranks as ane o the maist expensive ceeties in the warld, alongside Tokyo an Moscow.

Accordin tae the Office for National Statistics, based on the 2011 Census estimates, 59.8 per cent o the 8,173,941 indwallers o Lunnon war White, wi 44.9 per cent White British, 2.2 per cent White Irish, 0.1 per cent gypsy/Irish traveller an 12.1 per cent classifee'd as Other White.

athort Lunnon, Black an Asian childer outnumber White British childer by aboot sax tae fower in state schuils. Altogether at the 2011 census, o Lunnon's 1,624,768 population aged 0 tae 15, 46.4 per cent war White, 19.8 per cent war Asian, 19 per cent war Black, 10.8 per cent war Mixed an 4 per cent representit anither ethnic group. In Januar 2005, a survey o Lunnon's ethnic an religious diversity claimed that thare war mair nor 300 leids spoken in Lunnon an mair nor 50 non-indigenous communities wi a population o mair nor 10,000. figurs frae the Office for National Statistics shaw that, , Lunnon's foreign-born population wis 2,650,000 (33 per cent), up frae 1,630,000 in 1997.

The 2011 census shawed that 36.7 per cent o Greater Lunnon's population war born athoot the UK. The table tae the right shows the 30 maist common countries o birth o Lunnon residents in 2011, the date o the last published UK Census. A portion o the German-born population are as lik as tae be British nationals born tae parents servin in the British Armed Forces in Germany. Estimates produced bi the Office for National Statistics indicate that the five mucklemaist foreign-born groups livin in Lunnon in the period Julie 2009 tae Juin 2010 war those born in Indie, Poland, the Republic o Ireland, Bangladesh an Nigerie.

Accordin tae the 2011 Census, the mucklemaist releegious groupins are Christians (48.4 per cent), follaed bi those o no releegion (20.7 per cent), Muslims (12.4 per cent), nae reponse (8.5 per cent), Hindus (5.0 per cent), Jews (1.8 per cent), Sikhs (1.5 per cent), Buddhists (1.0 per cent) an ither (0.6 per cent).

Lunnon haes tradeetionally been Christian, an haes a hantle o kirks, parteecularly in the Ceety o Lunnon. The well-kent St Paul's Cathedral in the Ceety an Southwark Cathedral sooth o the river are Anglican admeenistrative centres, while the Archbishop o Canterbury, principal bishop o the Krik o Ingland an warldwide Anglican Communion, haes his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the Lunnon Borough o Lambeth.

Important national an royal ceremonies are shared atween St Paul's an Westminster Abbey. The Abbey is nae tae be confused wi nearby Westminster Cathedral, that is the mucklemaist Roman Catholic cathedral in England an Wales. Despite the prevalence o Anglican kirks, observance is verra laich wiin the Anglican denomination. Kirk attendance continues on a lang, slaw, steady decline, accordin tae Kirk o Ingland statistics.

Lunnon is hame tae sizeable Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, an Jewish commonties an aw. Notable mosques include the East Lunnon Mosque in Touer Hamlets, Lunnon Central Mosque on the edge o Regent's Park an the Baitul Futuh Mosque o the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. Follaein the ile boom, increasin nummers o wealthy Hindus an Middle-Eastren Muslims hae based themselves aroond Mayfair an Knightsbridge in Wast Lunnon. Thare muckle Muslim commonties in the eastren boroughs o Touer Hamlets an Newham.
lairge Hindu communities are in the north-wastren boroughs o Harrow an Brent; the latter is hame tae Europe's mucklemaist Hindu temple, Neasden Temple. Lunnon is hame tae 42 Hindu temples. Thare are Sikh communities in East an West Lunnon, parteecularly in Southall, hame tae ane o the mucklemaist Sikh populations an the mucklemaist Sikh temple ootside Indie.

The majority o Breetish Jews live in Lunnon, wi signeeficant Jewish commonties in Stamford Hill, Stanmore, Golders Green, Finchley, Hampstead, Hendon an Edgware in North Lunnon. Bevis Marks Synagogue in the Ceety o Lunnon is affiliatit tae Lunnon's heestoric Sephardic Jewish commonty. It is the anly synagogue in Europe that haes held regular services continuously for ower 300 year. Stanmore an Canons Pairk Synagogue haes the mucklemaist membership o ony single Orthodox synagogue in the whole o Europe, owertakin Ilford synagogue (in Lunnon an aa) in 1998. The commonity set up the unnon Jewish Forum in 2006 in response tae the growin signeeficance o devolved Lunnon Govrenment.

Thare are mony accents that are tradeetionally thocht on as Lunnon accents. The maist weel kent o the Lunnon accents lang syne acquired the Cockney label, that is haurd baith in Lunnon itself, an athort the wider South East England region mair generally. The accent o a 21st-century 'Lunnoner' varies widely; what is acomin mair an mair common amongst the unner-30s houiver is some fusion o Cockney wi a whole array o 'ethnic' accents, in parteecular Caribbean, that form an accent labelled Multicultural Lunnon English (MLE). The ither widely heard an spoken accent is RP (Received Pronunciation) in various forms, that can aften be haurd in the media an mony o ither traditional professions an ayont this aurie, tho this accent isnae leemitit tae Lunnon an South East England, an can be haurd selectively atouer the hale UK amang certaint social groupins.

Lunnon generates aboot 20 per cent o the UK's GDP (or $446 billion in 2005); while the economy o the Lunnon metropolitan aurie—the lairgest in Europe—generates aboot 30 per cent o the UK's GDP (or an estimatit $669 billion in 2005). Lunnon is ane o the pre-eminent financial centres o the warld an vies wi New York ceety as the maist important location for international finance.

Lunnon's lairgest industry is finance, an its financial exports mak it a lairge contributor tae the UK's balance o payments. Aroond 325,000 fowk wis employed in financial services in Lunnon til mid-2007. Lunnon haes ower 480 owerseas banks, mair nor ony ither ceety in the warld. Ower 85 percent (3.2 million) o the employed population o greater Lunnon works in the services industries. Acause o its prominent global role, Lunnon's economy haed been affectit bi the Late-2000s financial crisis. Housamiver, by 2010 the ceety haes recovered; pit in place new regulatory powers, proceedit tae regain lost ground an re-established Lunnon's economic parity wi New York. 

Alang wi professional services, media companies are concentratit in Lunnon an the media distribution industry is Lunnon's seicont maist competitive sector. The BBC is a significant employer, while ither broadcasters hae heidquarters aroond the ceety an aa. Mony naitional newspapers are editit in Lunnon. Lunnon is a major retail centre an in 2010 haed the heichest non-food retail sales o ony ceety in the warld, wi a tot spend o aroond £64.2 billion. The Port o Lunnon is the seicont-lairgest in the Unitit Kinrick, handlin 45 million tonnes o cargo ilka year.

Lunnon haes five major business destricts: the ceety, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden  Islington an Lambeth  Southwark. One wey tae get an idea o thair relative importance is tae leuk at relative amounts o office space: Greater Lunnon haed 27 million m2 o office space in 2001, an the ceety conteens the maist space, wi 8 million m2 o office space. Lunnon haes some o the heichest real estate prices in the warld.

A growin nummer o technology companies are based in Lunnon notably in East Lunnon Tech ceety, forby kent as Silicon Roundabout. In Aprile 2014, the ceety wis amang the first tae receive a geoTLD.

In Februar 2014 Lunnon wis ranked as the European ceety o the Future  in the 2014/15 leet by FDi Magazine.

Lunnon haes the heichest property prices o ony European ceety accordin tae the Office for National Statistics an the European Office o Statistics. On average the price per squerr metre in central Lunnon is €24,252 (Aprile 2014). This is higher than the property prices in ither G8 European caipital ceeties; Berlin €3,306, Rome €6,188 an Paris €11,229.

The gas an electricity distribution networks that manage an operate the touers, cables an pressure systems that deliver energy tae consumers athort the ceety are managed by National Grid plc, SGN an UK Power Networks.

Lunnon is a popular centre for tourism, ane o its prime industries, employin the equivalent o 350,000 fou-time workers in 2003, while annual expenditure by tourists is aroond £15 billion. Lunnon attracks ower 14 million international visitors a year; that gars it Europe's maist visitit ceety. Lunnon attracts 27 million overnicht-stay visitors every year. In 2010 the ten maist-visitit attractions in Lunnon war:

Thousans o faimlies athoot hames fin thairsels stuck in emergency accommodation for at least twa year.
A growthe in the nummer o UK households haes led tae the homeless charity Shelter statin: This growth is a result o people livin langer, mair fowk livin on thair lanesomes or in weeer hoosehauds, an net migration.

Transport is ane o the fower main auries o policy administered bi the Mayor o Lunnon, houiver the mayor's financial control disnae extend tae the langer distance rail network that enters Lunnon. In 2007 he assumed responsibility for some local lines, that nou form the Lunnon Overground network, adding tae the existin responsibility for the Lunnon Unnergrund, trams an buses. The public transport network is administered by Transport for Lunnon (TfL) an is ane o the priceymaist in the warld.

The lines that formed the Lunnon Unnergrund, as weel as trams an buses, became pairt o an integratit transport system in 1933 when the Lunnon Passenger Transport Board or Lunnon Transport wis creatit. Transport for Lunnon is nou the statutory corporation responsible for maist aspects o the transport system in Greater Lunnon, an is run by a board an a commissioner appyntit bi the Mayor o Lunnon.

Lunnon is a major international air transport hub wi the lairgest ceety airspace in the warld. Aicht airports uise the wird Lunnon in thair name, but maist traffic passes throu sax o thir. Lunnon Heathrow Airport, in Hillingdon, West Lunnon, is the busiest airport in the warld for international traffic, an is the major hub o the naition's banner carrier, British Airways. In Mairch 2008 its fift terminal wis opened. Thare war plans for a third runway an a sixth terminal houiver thir war cancelled bi the Coalition Government on 12 Mey 2010.

Similar traffic, wi some cheap short-haul flights, is forbye handled at Gatwick Airport, sooth o Lunnon in West Sussex.

Stanstit Airport, north east o Lunnon in Essex, is a local UK hub an Luton Airport tae the north o Lunnon in Bedfordshire, caters maistly for cheap short-haul flights. Lunnon ceety Airport, the weeest an maist central airport, in Newham, East Lunnon, is focused on business travellers, wi a mixtur o fou service short-haul schedult flichts an considerable business jet traffic. Lunnon Southend Airport, east o Lunnon in Essex, is a smawer, regional airport that mainly caters for cheap short-haul flights.

The Airports Commission is due tae report in Summer 2015 on future expansion o airport capacity.

The Lunnon Unnergrund, commonly referred tae as the Tube, is the auldest an seicont langest metro system in the warld. The system serves 270 stations an wis formed frae several private companies, includin the warld's first unnerground electric line, the City an South Lunnon Railway. It dates frae 1863.

Ower three million journeys is made ilk a day on the Underground network, ower 1 billion ilk a year. An investment programme is attemptin tae reduce congestion an impruive reliability, includin £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent afore the 2012 Summer Olympics. The Docklands Light Railway, that opened in 1987, is a seicont, mair local metro system uisin smawer an lighter tram-teep vehicles that serve Docklands an Greenwich.

Thare are 366 railway stations in the Lunnon Travelcard Zones on an extensive abuin-ground suburban railway network. South Lunnon, parteecularly, haes a heich concentration o railways as it haes fewer Underground lines. Maist rail lines terminate aroond the centre o Lunnon, running intae eighteen terminal stations, cep for the Thameslink trains connecting Bedford in the north an Brighton in the sooth via Luton an Gatwick airports. Lunnon haes Britain's busiest station by nummer o passengers – Waterloo, wi ower 184 million people uisin the interchange station complex (whilk includes Waterloo East station) ilka year.  is the busiest station in Europe bi the nummer o trains passing.

Wi the need for mair rail capacity in Lunnon, Crossrail is due tae open in 2018. It will be a new railway line runnin east tae wast throu Lunnon an intae the Home Counties wi a branch tae Heathrow Airport. It is Europe's biggest construction project, wi a £15 billion projectit cost.

Lunnon is the centre o the National Rail network, wi 70 percent o rail journeys stairtin or endin in Lunnon. Lik suburban rail services, regional an inter-ceety trains depart frae several termini aroon the ceety centre, linkin Lunnon wi the rest o Britain includin Cambridge, Bristol, Cardiff, Exeter, Birmingham, Holyhead, Sheffield, Southampton, Leeds, Manchester, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Edinburgh an Glasgow.

Some international railway services tae Continental Europe wis operatit during the 20t century as boat trains, lik the Admiraal de Ruijter tae Amsterdam an the Night Ferry tae Paris an Brussels. The openin o the Channel Tunnel in 1994 connectit Lunnon directly tae the continental rail network, allouin Eurostar services tae begin. Syne 2007, heich-speed trains link St. Pancras International wi Lille, Paris, Brussels an European tourist destinations via the High Speed 1 rail link an the Channel Tunnel. The first heich-speed domestic trains stairtit in Juin 2009 linking Kent tae Lunnon. Thare plans for a seicont heich speed line linkin Lunnon tae the Midlands, North West England, an Yorkshire.

Awtho rail freight levels are far doun compared tae thair heicht, significant quantities o cargo are forby carried intae an oot o Lunnon by rail; chiefly biggin materials an landfill waste. As a major hub o the British railway network, Lunnon's tracks forby cairy lairge amounts o freight for the ither regions, sic as container freight frae the Channel Tunnel an English Channel ports, an nuclear waste for reprocessing at Sellafield.

Lunnon's bus network is ane o the lairgest in the warld, runnin 24 oor a day, wi aboot 8,500 buses, mair nor 700 bus routes an aroond 19,500 bus stops. In 2013, the network haed mair nor 2 billion commuter trips per annum, mair nor the Underground. Aroond £850 million is taen in revenue ilk a year. Lunnon haes the lairgest wheelchair accessible network in the warld an, frae the 3rd quarter o 2007, acame mair accessible tae hearin- an sicht- impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements wis introduced. The distinctive reid double-decker buses is a international recognised trademark o Lunnon transport alang wi black cabs an the Tube.

Lunnon haes a modern tram network, kent as Tramlink, centred on Croydon in South Lunnon. The network haes 39 stops an fower routes, an carried 28 million bodies in 2013. Syne Juin 2008 Transport for Lunnon haes completely owned Tramlink, an it plans tae spend £54m by 2015 on maintenance, renewals, upgrades an capacity enhancements.

Lunnon's first an anly cable car, kent as the Emirates Air Line, opened in Juin 2012. Crossin the River Thames, linking Greenwich Peninsula an the Royal Docks in the east o the ceety, the cable car is integratit wi Lunnon's Oyster Card ticketing system.

Cycling is an increasingly popular wey tae get aroond Lunnon. The launch o a cycle hire scheme in Julie 2010 haes been successfu an generally weel received. The Lunnon Cycling Campaign lobbies for better provision.

Frae bein the lairgest port in the warld, the Port o Lunnon is nou anly the seicont-lairgest in the Unitit Kinrick, handling 45 million tonnes o cargo each year. Most o this actually passes throu the Port o Tilbury, ootside the boundary o Greater Lunnon.

Lunnon haes frequent river boat services on the Thames kent as Thames Clippers. Thir run up tae every 20 minutes atween Embankment Pier an North Greenwich Pier. The Woolwich Ferry, wi 2.5 million passengers every year, is a frequent service linking the North an South Circular Roads. Other operators run baith commuter an tourist boat services in Lunnon.

Awtho the majority o journeys involvin central Lunnon are made bi public transport, car traivel is common in the suburbs. The inner ring road (aroond the ceety centre), the North an South Circular roads (in the suburbs), an the outer orbital motorway (the M25, athoot the biggit-up aurie) encircle the ceety an are intersectit by a nummer o busy radial routes—but verra few motorways penetrate intae inner Lunnon. A plan for a comprehensive network o motorways atouer the ceety (the Ringways Plan) wis prepared in the 1960s but wis maistly cancelt in the air 1970s. The M25 is the langest ring-road motorway in the warld at  long. The A1 an M1 connect Lunnon tae Leeds, an Newcastle an Edinburgh.

Lunnon is notorious for its traffic congestion, wi the M25 motorway the busiest stretch in the kintra. The average speed o a car in the rush oor is .

In 2003, a congestion charge wis introduced tae reduce traffic volumes in the ceety centre. Wi a few exceptions, motorists are required tae pey £10 a day tae drive wiin a defined zone encompassing a fair bit o central Lunnon. Motorists wha is resident o the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced saison pass. Lunnon government initially expectit the Congestion Charge Zone tae increase daily peak period Underground an bus users by 20,000 people, reduce road traffic bi 10 tae 15 per cent, increase traffic speeds by 10 tae 15 per cent, an reduce queues by 20 tae 30 per cent. Ower the course o several years, the average nummer o cars enterin the centre o Lunnon on a weekday wis reduced frae 195,000 tae 125,000 cars – a 35-per-cent reduction o vehicles driven a day.

Lunnon is a major centre o heicher eddication lair an research an its 43 varsities form the lairgest concentration o heicher education institutes in Europe. In 2008/09 it haed a higher education student population o aroond 412,000 (aboot 17 per cent o the UK tot); oot o thaim, aroond 287,000 wis registered for unnergraduate degrees an 118,000 war studyin at postgraduate level. In 2008/09 thare war aroond 97,150 international students in Lunnon, aboot 25 per cent o aw international students in the UK.

A nummer o warld-leadin education institutions are based in Lunnon. In the 2014/15 QS World University Rankings, Imperial College Lunnon is ranked jynt 2nt in the warld (alongside The University o Cambridge), University College Lunnon (UCL) is ranked 5t, an Keeng's College Lunnon (KCL) is ranked 16t. The Lunnon School o Economics haes been describit as the warld's leadin social science institution for baith teaching an research. The Lunnon Business School is considert ane o the warld's leadin business schuils an in 2015 its MBA programme wis ranked seicont best in the warld bi the Financial Times.

Wi 120,000 students in Lunnon, the federal University o Lunnon is the lairgest contact teaching varsity in the UK. It includes fower lairge multi-faculty varsities – Keeng's College Lunnon, Queen Mary, Royal Holloway an UCL – an a nummer o smawer an mair specialised institutions includin Birkbeck, the Courtauld Institute o Art, Goldsmiths, Guildhall School o Music an Drama, the Institute o Education, the Lunnon Business School, the Lunnon School o Economics, the Lunnon School o Hygiene  Tropical Medicine, the Royal Academy o Music, the Central School o Speech an Drama, the Royal Veterinary College an the School o Oriental an African Studies. Members o the University o Lunnon hae thair ain admissions procedures, an some awaird thair ain degrees.

Thare a nummer o varsities in Lunnon that is ootwi the University o Lunnon system, includin Brunel University, City University Lunnon, Imperial College Lunnon, Keengston University, Lunnon Metropolitan University, Middlesex University, University o East Lunnon, University o West Lunnon an University o Westminster, (wi ower 34,000 students, the lairgest unitary varsity in Lunnon), Lunnon South Bank University, Middlesex University, University o the Arts Lunnon (the lairgest varsity o airt, design, fashion, communication an the performin arts in Europe), University o East Lunnon, the University o West Lunnon an the University o Westminster. In addition, thare three international varsities in Lunnon – Regent's College, Richmond University an Schiller International University.

Lunnon is home tae five major medical schools – Barts an The Lunnon School o Medicine an Dentistry (pairt o Queen Mary), Keeng's College Lunnon School o Medicine (the lairgest medical schuil in Europe), Imperial College School o Medicine, UCL Medical School an St George's, University o Lunnon – an haes numerous affiliatit teaching hospitals. Forbye, it is a major centre for biomedical research, an three o the UK's five academic health science centres is based in the ceety – Imperial College Healthcare, Keeng's Health Partners an UCL Partners (the lairgest sic centre in Europe).

Thare are a nummer o business schuils in Lunnon, includin the Lunnon School o Business an Finance, Cass Business School (pairt o City University Lunnon), Hult International Business School, ESCP Europe, European Business School Lunnon, Imperial College Business School an the Lunnon Business School. Lunnon is hame tae mony specialeet arts education institutions an aa, includin the Lunnon College o Contemporary Arts (LCCA), the Academy o Live an Recorded Arts, the Lunnon Contemporary Dance Scuil, RADA, the Royal College o Art, the Royal College o Music an Trinity Laban.

The majority o primary an seicontar schuils an faur education colleges in Lunnon is controlt bi the Lunnon boroughs or otherwise state-funded; leadin ensaumples include City an Islington College, Ealing, Hammersmith an West Lunnon College, Leyton Sixth Form College, Tower Hamlets College an Bethnal Green Academy. Thare a nummer o private schuils an colleges in Lunnon an aa, some auld an famous, lik City o Lunnon Scuil, Harrow, St Paul's Scuil, University College Scuil, Highgate Scuil an Westminster Scuil.

Wiin the City o Westminster, the entertainment destrict o the West End haes its focus aroond Leicester squerr, whaur Lunnon an warld film premieres are held, an Piccadilly Circus, wi its giant electronic advertisements. Lunnon's theatre destrict is here, as is mony cinemas, bars, clubs an restaurants, includin the ceety's Chinatown destrict (in Soho), an juist tae the east is Covent Garden, an aurie housing speciality shops. The ceety is the hame o Andrew Lloyd Webber, whase musicals hae dominate the West End theatre syne the late 20t century. The Unitit Kinrick's Royal Ballet, English National Ballet, Royal Opera an English National Opera are based in Lunnon an perform at the Royal Opera House, the Lunnon Coliseum, Sadler's Wells Theatre an the Royal Albert Hall as weel as tourin the kintra.

Islington's  lang Upper Street, extendin northlins frae Angel, haes mair bars an restaurants nor ony ither street in the Unitit Kinrick. Europe's busiest shopping aurie is Oxford Street, a shopping street nearly  long, makin it the langest shopping street in the Unitit Kinrick. Oxford Street is home tae vast nummers o retailers an department stores, includin the warld-famous Selfridges flagship store. Knightsbridge, hame tae the equally renowned Harrods department store, lees tae the sooth-wast.
 
Lunnon is home tae designers Vivienne Westwood, Galliano, Stella McCartney, Manolo Blahnik, an Jimmy Choo amang others; its renowned airt an fashion schuils mak it an international centre o fashion alang wi Paris, Milan, an New York ceety. Lunnon offers a great variety o cuisine as a result o its ethnically diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants o Brick Lane an the Chinese food restaurants o Chinatown.

Thare is a variety o annual events, beginnin wi the relatively new New Year's Day Parade, fireworks display at the Lunnon Eye, the warld's seicont lairgest street party, the Notting Hill Carnival is held durin the late August Bank Holiday ilka year. Traditional parades include November's Lord Mayor's Show, a centuries-auld event celebrating the annual appointment o a new Lord Mayor o the ceety o Lunnon wi a procession alang the streets o the ceety, an Juin's Trooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments o the Commonwealth an British armies tae celebrate the Queen's Official Birthday.

Lunnon haes been the setting for mony works o literature. The literary centres o Lunnon hae tradeetionally been hilly Hampstead an (syne the early 20t century) Bloomsbury. Writers closely associatit wi the ceety are the diarist Samuel Pepys, notit for his eyewitness accoont o the Great Fire, Charles Dickens, whose representation o a foggy, snawy, grimy Lunnon o street sweepers an pickpockets haes been a major influence on people's vision o early Victorian Lunnon, an Virginia Woolf, regarded as ane o the foremost modrenist literary figurs o the 20t century.

The pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer's late 14t-century Canterbury Tales set oot for Canterbury frae Lunnon – specifically, frae the Tabard inn, Southwark. William Shakespeare spent a lairge pairt o his life livin an working in Lunnon; his contemporary Ben Jonson wis forby based thare, an some o his work—maist notably his play The Alchemist—wis set in the ceety. A Journal o the Plague Year (1722) bi Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation o the events o the 1665 Great Plague.  Later important depictions o Lunnon frae the 19t an early 20t centuries are Dickens' novels, an Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories. Modern writers pervasively influenced bi the ceety include Peter Ackroyd, author o a biography o Lunnon, an Iain Sinclair, wha writes in the genre o psychogeography.

Lunnon haes played a significant role in the film industry, an haes major studios at Ealing an a special effects an post-production community centred in Soho. Working Title Films haes its headquarters in Lunnon. Lunnon haes been the setting for films includin Oliver Twist (1948), Scrooge (1951), Peter Pan (1953), The 101 Dalmatians (1961), My Fair Lady (1964), Mary Poppins (1964), Blowup (1966), The Long Good Friday (1980), Notting Hill (1999), Love Actually (2003), V For Vendetta (2005),  (2008) an The King's Speech (2010). Notable actors an filmmakers frae Lunnon include; Charlie Chaplin, Alfred Hitchcock, Michael Caine, Helen Mirren, Gary Oldman, Christopher Nolan, Jude Law, Tom Hardy, Keira Knightley an Daniel Day-Lewis. As o 2008, the British Academy Film Awards haes taen place at the Royal Opera House. Lunnon is a major centre for television production, wi studios includin BBC Television Centre, The Fountain Studios an The Lunnon Studios. Mony television programmes hae been set in Lunnon, includin the popular television soap opera EastEnders, broadcast bi the BBC syne 1985.

Lunnon is home tae mony museums, galleries, an ither institutions, mony o thaim free o admission charges an are major tourist attractions as weel as playin a research role. The first o thaim tae be established wis the British Museum in Bloomsbury, in 1753. oreeginally containin antiquities, naitural history specimens an the national leebrar, the museum nou haes 7 million artefacts frae aroond the globe. In 1824 the National Gallery wis foondit tae hoose the British national collection o Western pentins; this nou occupies a prominent poseetion in Trafalgar squerr.

In the latter hauf o the 19t century the locale o South Kensington wis developed as Albertopolis, a cultural an scientific quarter. Three major national museums are thare: the Victoria an Albert Museum (for the applied arts), the Natural History Museum an the Science Museum. The National Portrait Gallery wis foondit in 1856 tae hoose depictions o figurs frae British history; its holdings nou comprise the warld's maist extensive collection o portraits. The national gallery o British airt is at Tate Britain, oreeginally established as an annexe o the National Gallery in 1897. The Tate Gallery, as it wis umwhile kent, became a major centre for modern airt an aa; in 2000 this collection muived tae Tate Modern, a new gallery housed in the umwhile Bankside Power Station.

Lunnon is ane o the major classical an popular music capitals o the warld an is hame tae major muisic corporations, sic as EMI an Warner Music Group as weel as countless bands, musicians an industry professionals. The ceety is home tae mony orchestras an concert halls an aa, lik the Barbican Arts Centre (principal base o the Lunnon Symphony Orchestra an the Lunnon Symphony Chorus), Cadogan Hall (Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) an the Royal Albert Hall (The Proms). Lunnon's twa main opera houses are the Royal Opera House an the Coliseum Theatre. The UK's lairgest pipe organ is at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are at the cathedrals an major kirks. Several conservatoires are wiin the ceety: Royal Academy o Music, Royal College o Music, Guildhall School o Music an Drama an Trinity College o Music.

Lunnon haes numerous venues for rock an pop concerts, includin lairge arenas sic as Earls Court, Wembley Arena an the O2 Arena, as weel as mony mid-sized venues, sic as Brixton Academy, the Hammersmith Apollo an the Shepherd's Bush Empire. Several music festivals, includin the Wireless Festival, are held in Lunnon. The ceety is hame tae the first an oreeginal Hard Rock Cafe an the Abbey Road Studios whaur The Beatles recorded mony o thair hits. In the 1960s, 1970s an 1980s, musicians an groups lik Elton John, Pink Floyd, David Bowie, Queen, The Kinks, The Rolling Stones, The Who, Eric Clapton, Led Zeppelin, The Small Faces, Iron Maiden, Fleetwood Mac, Elvis Costello, Cat Stevens, The Police, The Cure, Madness, The Jam, Dusty Springfield, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart an Sade, derived thair sound frae the streets an rhythms vibrating throu Lunnon.

Lunnon wis instrumental in the development o punk muisic, wi figurs sic as the Sex Pistols, The Clash, an Vivienne Westwood aw based in the ceety. Mair recent artists tae emerge frae the Lunnon music scene include George Michael, Kate Bush, Seal, Siouxsie an the Banshees, Bush, the Spice Girls, Jamiroquai, Blur, The Prodigy, Gorillaz, Mumford  Sons, Coldplay, Amy Winehouse an Adele. Lunnon is a centre for urban music an aa. In parteecular, the genres UK garage, drum an bass, dubstep an grime evolved in the ceety frae the foreign genres o hip hop an reggae, anent local drum an bass. Black music station BBC Radio 1Xtra wis set up tae support the rise o home-grown urban music baith in Lunnon an in the rest o the UK.

The lairgest parks in the central aurie o Lunnon are three o the aicht Royal Parks, namely Hyde Park an its neighbour Kensington Gardens in the wast, an Regent's Park tae the north. Hyde Park in parteecular is popular for sports an whiles hosts open-air concerts. Regent's Park conteens Lunnon Zoo, the warld's auldest scientific zoo, an is near the tourist attraction o Madame Tussauds Wax Museum. Primrose Hill in the northren pairt o Regent's Park at  is a popular spot tae view the ceety skyline.

Close tae Hyde Park are smawer Royal Parks, Green Park an St. James's Park.  A nummer o lairge parks lie ootside the ceety centre, includin the remainin Royal Parks o Greenwich Park tae the sooth-east an Bushy Park an Richmond Park (the lairgest) tae the sooth-wast, Hampton Court Park is a royal park an aa, but, acause it conteens a palace, it is administered bi the Historic Royal Palaces, unlik the aicht Royal Parks.

Close tae Richmond Park is Kew Gardens whilk haes the warld's lairgest collection o livin plants. In 2003, the gardens war pit on the UNESCO leet o World Heritage Sites. Thare a thrang o parks administert bi Lunnon's borough cooncils, includin Victoria Park in the East End an Battersea Park in the centre. Some mair informal, semi-naitural open spaces exist, includin the  Hampstead Heath o North Lunnon, an Epping Forest, whilk covers 2,476 hectares (6,118.32 acres) in the east. Baith is controlt bi the City o Lunnon Corporation. Hampstead Heath incorporates Kenwood House, the umwhile stately home an a popular location in the summer months whaur classical muisical concerts is held bi the lake, attracting thousans o fowk ilka weekend tae enjoy the muisic, scenery an fireworks. Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities, includin moontain biking, walking, horse ridin, golf, anglin, an orienteerin.

Walking is a popular recreational activity in Lunnon. auries that provide for walks include Wimbledon Common, Epping Forest, Hampton Court Park, Hampstead Heath, the aicht Royal Parks, canals an disuised railway tracks. Access tae canals an rivers haes improved recently, includin the creation o the Thames Path, some  o whilk is wiin Greater Lunnon, an The Wandle Trail; this rins  throu South Lunnon alang the River Wandle, a tributary o the River Thames. Ither long distance paths, linkin green spaces, hae been creatit an aa, includin the Capital Ring, the Green Chain Walk, Lunnon Outer Orbital Path (Loop), Jubilee Walkway, Lea Valley Walk, an the Diana, Princess o Wales Memorial Walk.

Lunnon haes hostit the Simmer Olympics three times: in 1908, 1948, an 2012. It wis chosen in Julie 2005 tae host the 2012 Olympics an Paralympics, makin it the first ceety tae host the modren Gemmes three times. The ceety wis forby the host o the Breetish Empire Gemmes in 1934. In 2017 Lunnon hostit the World Championships in Athletics.

Lunnon's maist popular sport is fitbaw an it haes fourteen League fitbaa clubs, includin sax in the Premier League: Arsenal, Chelsea, Crystal Palace, Queens Park Rangers, Tottenham Hotspur, an West Ham United. In Mey 2012, Chelsea acame the first Lunnon club tae win the UEFA Champions League.

Frae 1924, the oreeginal Wembley Stadium wis the hame o the Inglish naitional fitba team.
It hostit the 1966 FIFA World Cup Final, wi Ingland defeatin Wast Germany, an serd as the venue for the FA Cup Final as weel as rugby league's Challenge Cup final. The new Wembley Stadium sers exactly the same purposes an haes a capacity o 90,000.

Five Aviva Premiership rugby union teams is based in Lunnon, (Lunnon Irish, Saracens, Wasps, Lunnon Welsh an Harlequins), awbesit currently anly Harlequins an Saracens play thair hame gemmes wiin Greater Lunnon. Lunnon Scottish play in the RFU Championship club an ither rugby union clubs in the ceety include Richmond F.C., Rosslyn Park F.C., Westcombe Park R.F.C. an Blackheath F.C.. Twickenham Stadium in sooth-wast Lunnon is the naitional rugby union stadium, an haes a capacity o 82,000 nou that the new sooth staund haes been completit.

While rugby league is mair popular in the north o England, thare are twa professional rugby league clubs in Lunnon – the seicont tier Championship One team the Lunnon Broncos wha play at The Hive in Edgware an the third tier League 1 team the Lunnon Skolars frae Wood Green, Haringey; in addition, Hemel Stags frae Hemel Hempstead north o Lunnon play in League 1 an aa.

Ane o Lunnon's best-kent annual sports competitions is the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, held at the All England Club in the sooth-wastren suburb o Wimbledon. Played in late Juin tae early Julie, it is the auldest tennis tournament in the warld, an widely considered the maist prestigious.

Cricket in Lunnon is served by twa Test cricket grunds Lord's (hame o Middlesex C.C.C.) in St John's Wood an the Oval (home o Surrey C.C.C.) in Kennington. Lord's haes hostit fower finals o the Cricket World Cup.

Ither key events is the annual mass-participation Lunnon Marathon, in whilk some 35,000 runners attemp a  course aroond the ceety, an the Oxford an Cambridge Boat Race on the River Thames atween Putney an Mortlake.

Thare 46 ither places on sax continents namit efter Lunnon. As weel as Lunnon's twinnin, the Lunnon burghs hae twinnins wi pairts o ither ceeties the warld ower. Shawn ablo is the leet o ceeties that the Greater Lunnon Authority haes twinnin arrangements wi:

The follaein ceeties hiv a freendship greement wi Lunnon:




#Article 36: Norawa (113 words)


The Kinrick o Norawa or Norrowey (whiles cried Norseland) is a Nordic kintra in the wastren pairt o the Scandinavian Hauf-island.  Hit haes mairches wi Swaden, Finland an Roushie, an its watters meets the watters o Denmark an the Unitit Kinrick.  It haes a sair streekit shape an a lang strand alang the North Atlantic Ocean, whaur Norawa's namely fjords is fund.  The nearby island launds o Svalbard an Jan Mayen is pairt o the kinrick o Norawa, an Bouvet Island in the Sooth Atlantic Ocean an Peter I Island in the Sooth Paceefic Ocean is Norse dependencies, an isnae pairt o the kinrick. The naitional day o Norawa is 17t o Mey.




#Article 37: Canadae (237 words)


Canadae is a kintra in North Americae, ane o the northmaist in the warld, an the mucklest kintra bi area efter Roushie.  It mairches the Unitit States an its watters eiks northart intil the Arctic Ocean tae the Nor' Powl.

Canadae is a federation o ten provinces an three territories.  It wis first shapit bi the British North Americae Act o 1867 an cried the Dominion o Canadae.  It is a pairlamentary representative democracy an is a constitutional monarchy wi Queen Elizabeth II as the heid o state.

Canadae's offícial leids is Inglis an French. The French is spak feckly in Quebec (or Québec in French). Its offeicial estimate o indwallers for 2013 is 35,158,300.

Canadae is a federation makit wi ten provinces an three territories;

Provinces hae mair autonomy nor territories. Ilkane hae its ain provincial o territorial symbols.

The provinces are responsible fur maist o Canadae's social programs (sic as halth care, eddication, an welfar) an thegether collect mair revenue than the federal govrenment, an awmaist lanerly structur amang federations in the Yird. Uisin its spendin powers, the federal govrenment can stairt naitional policies in provincial airts, sic as the Canada Health Act; the provinces can opt thaimsels oot o thir but thay aften dinnae dae in practice. Equal pey are duin bi the federal govrenment tae mak siccar thit raisonable uniform standaurts o services an taxation are kept atween the richer and puirer provinces.




#Article 38: Johann Sebastian Bach (149 words)


Johann Sebastian Bach wis a German componer. He wis born on 21 Mairch 1685 in Eisenach, til a faimlie o muisicians. He wrat monie o his muisical warks for uiss in the kirk: Passions frae John an Matthew, oratorios an aboot 300 cantatas, monie o whilk canna be foond. Forbye he wrat muisic for the muisical instruments fiddle, cello, flute, organ, harpsichord and clavichord. For orchestra, he componed amang ithers the weel-kent sax Brandenburg concerti. He wis mairrit twa times an haed 20 bairns, some o them becam muisicians an aa. He dee'd on 28 Julie 1750 in Leipzig.

Atho he haes past awa, his muisic is aye gey influential wi us. His muisic wis unco rich an deep, an wis loved by ane an aa. An atho he wisna widely kent o in his time, he is ane o the warld's maist beloved muisicians in history, the day.




#Article 39: Elizabeth II (219 words)


Queen Elizabeth II (born 21 Aprile 1926) is the Queen an heid o state o the Unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain an Northren Ireland, an 15 ither kintras an thair dependencies. Thae kintras is Antigua an Barbuda, Australie, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Canadae, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Saunt Kitts an Nevis, Saunt Lucia, Saunt Vincent an the Grenadines, the Solomon Islands, an Tuvalu.

Elizabeth II hauds mony ither poseetions, amang them Heid o the Commonweel, Supreme Governor o the Kirk o Ingland, Duke o Normandy, Laird o Mann, an Paramount Chief o Fiji. Her lang ring haes seen muckle chynges in her kinricks an the warld an aw, aiblins the maist kenspeckle is the dissolution o the Breetish Empire (a process that begoud in the hindermaist years o her faither's ring) an the evolution o the modren Commonweel o Nations.

Syne 1947, the Queen haes been wad tae Prince Philip, Duke o Edinburgh, born a prince o Greece an Denmark but efter naituralisation he wis kent as Philip Mountbatten an efter wis cried the Duke o Edinburgh. Nou the couple haes fower childer an aicht grandchilder; the aicht (Viscount Severn) wis born on 17 Dizember 2007 tae Prince Edward an Sophie, Countess o Wessex.

The'r some controversy ower Elizabeths teetles an modes o address in Scotland:




#Article 40: Esperanto (469 words)


Esperanto is the maist widely spoken constructit internaitional auxiliary leid. Its name derives frae Doktoro Esperanto (Dr. Hopeful), the pseudonym unner which L. L. Zamenhof publisht the first beuk detailin Esperanto, the Unua Libro, in 1887. Zamenhof's goal wis tae creaut an easy-tae-learn an politically neutral leid that wad serve as a universal seicont leid tae foster peace an internaitional unnerstandin.

Esperanto is the ae constructit leid wi native speakers, that is, fowk who learned it frae thair parents as ane o thair native leids. Estimates range frae 10,000 tae twa million additional active or fluent speakers. Uisage is parteecularly hie in eastren an northren Europe, eastren Asie, Brazil, an Iran. A Warld Congress o Esperanto wis organized in Fraunce in 1905, an syne then haes been held in various kintras ivery year apairt frae durin the warld wars. Awtho nae kintra haes adoptit it offeecially, Esperanto wis recommendit bi the French Academy o Sciences in 1921, wis recognised bi UNESCO in 1954, an is currently the leid o instruction o a varsity in San Marino. Thare is evidence that learnin Esperanto mey provide a superior foondation for learnin leids in general, an some primary schools teach it as preparation for learnin ither foreign leids.

Esperanto wis creatit in the late 1870s an early 1880s bi Dr. Ludovic Lazarus Zamenhof, a Roushie-Jewish ophthalmologist frae Bialystok, at the time pairt o the Roushie Empire. Accordin tae Zamenhof, he creatit this leid tae foster harmony atween fowk frae different kintras. His feelins an the situation in Bialystok mey be gleaned frae an extract frae his famous letter tae Nikolai Borovko:

Efter some ten years o development, which Zamenhof spent translatin literature intae Esperanto as well as writin oreeginal prose an verse, the first beuk o Esperanto grammar wis publisht in Warsaw in Julie 1887. The nummer o speakers grew rapidly ower the next few decades, at first primarily in the Roushie Empire an Eastern Europe, then in Wastren Europe, the Americas, Cheenae, an Japan. In the early years, speakers o Esperanto kept in contact primarily throu correspondence an periodicals, but in 1905 the first warld congress o Esperanto speakers wis held in Boulogne-sur-Mer, Fraunce. Syne then warld congresses hae been held in different kintras ivery year, except durin the twa Warld Wars. Syne the Seicont Warld War, thay hae been attended bi an average o ower 2,000 an up tae 6,000 fowk.

Zamenhof's name for the leid wis simply La Internacia Lingvo the Internaitional Leid.

Its vocabular is maistly taen frae Romance soorces, wi a simplifee'd gremmer an an agglutinative morphology that maks wird-creation eith. The spellin o Esperanto wis designed tae be haillie conseistent an aa, altho Zamenhof felt this needit the creation o sax new letters: ĉ , ĝ , ĥ , ĵ , ŝ , an ŭ .




#Article 41: Ludwig van Beethoven (163 words)


Ludwig van Beethoven wis a German componer and pianae player. He wis born in 1770 an dee'd on 26 Mairch 1827. He componed clessical muisic for the pianae an hale orchestras. His weel-kent warks is his fift an nint seemphonies an the pianae piece 'Für Elise' forby. He is conseidered ti be ane o the verra finest clessical componers. Whan he wis a younker he wis a talentit pianist, weel likit bi the rich an important fowk in Vienna whaur he bade.

Houaniver, in 1801 he stairtit tae growe deif. His deifness became waur an bi 1817 he wis stane deif. Awtho he coudna play in concerts ony mair he held on componin, an at thon time componed some o his finest warks.

He flittit ti Vienna in 1792 an bade thare for the lave o his life. He niver mairiet. He dee'd on Mairch 26, 1827 (aged 56) during a thunnerstorm in Vienna, Austrick. His warks bides weel forrit in classical muisic.




#Article 42: Richard Wagner (139 words)


Wilhelm Richard Wagner (22 Mey 1813 in Leipzig – 13 Februar 1883 in Venice) wis an gey moyen German componer, muisic theorist, an essayist, maistlie kent for his grundbrakking symphonic-operas (or music dramas). His warks is byordinar for thair conteenous contrapuntal textur, rich harmonies an orchestration, an elaborate uiss o leitmotifs: themes pitten thegither wi parteeclar chairacters or seetiations. Wagner's chromatic muisical leid wis lik later oncomes in European classical muisic, includin unco chromaticism an atonality. He chynged muisical thocht throu his idea o Gesamtkunstwerk (hail airt-wark), epitomed bi his muckle fower-opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (1876). His concep o leitmotif an integrated muisical expression wis a stieve fluence on monie 20t hunderyear film scores. Forby Wagner is an unco controversial feegur, baith for his muisical an dramatic innovations, an for his unco public expression o anti-semitic ideas.




#Article 43: Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (103 words)


Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (Roushie: Пётр Ильи́ч Чайко́вский, sometimes transliteratit as Piotr, Anglifee'd tae Peter Ilich), (7 Mey 1840 – 6 November 1893 (N.S.); 25 Aprile 1840 – 25 October 1893 (O.S.)) wis a Roushie componer o the Romantic era. Atho nae a member o the group o nationalistic componers aften kent in Inglis-spaeking kintras as The Five, his muisic haes come tae be kent an loued for its parteecular Russian chairacter as weel as its rich harmonies an stirrin melodies. His warks, houaniver, wis a deal mair westren nor his Russian contemporars sin he uised baith nationalistic fowk melodies an warldwide elements effective.




#Article 44: Still Game (125 words)


Still Game is a telly sitcom pitten oot bi the BBC, starrin Ford Kiernan an Greg Hemphill. The chief chairacters o the shaw is Jack an Victor, twa auld anes that bide in a Glesga hie touer. The programme is an affshoot o Kiernan an Hemphill's sketch shaw Chewin' the Fat, whaur thae twa chairacters first kythed.

Ither chairacters are Winston, thair freend; Navid, the shopkeeper; Isa, the bletherskite; an Tam, the misert.

Maist o the dialogue in the programme is in the Glesga byleid o Scots.

The first three series wis pitten oot on BBC Scotland juist, an pou'd in huge audiences (aboot 60% o the Scots viewin nummers). Series 4, 5 an 6 wis pitten oot ower the hail o the Unitit Kinrick.




#Article 45: Chewin' the Fat (146 words)


Chewin' the Fat is a televeesion sketch shaw pit oot bi BBC Scotland, screived bi an featurin Ford Kiernan an Greg Hemphill.

It wis oreiginally pit oot on BBC Radio Scotland, an later muived tae the telly. The first tae series wis pit oot on BBC Scotland juist, but series three an fower wis pit oot ower the hail o the Unitit Kinrick. The last series finisht in 2002, but the'r a special programme annat on at Hogmanay on BBC Scotland.

Baith Scots an Inglis wis uised in the sindry sketches i the shaw. The shaw introduced the phrase Gaunae no dae that — fae a sketch whaur a lichthoose keeper wad plaintively bode at his freend tae stop playin hunt-ee-gowk wi him — tae popular spaek.

An affshoot o the shaw wis Still Game.

The teitle o the shaw is screived wi the apologetic apostrophe.




#Article 46: Apologetic apostrophe (216 words)


The apologetic apostrophe is the name gien tae a wey o writin Scots for tae mak the seemilarities atween Scots an Inglis gey appearent. It is the uiss o an apostrophe (') for tae shaw letters wantin frae Scots wirds but's aye tae the fore in Inglis, for tae gie the impression that Scots is nocht but orra Inglis.

Aften thae wirds haes niver haed thir letters wantin. Ae example in this seestem is the wird taen; it wad be spelt ta'en (frae Inglis taken); but the wird wis spelt tane in the 14t century, sae the apostrophe here coud be cawed specious.

Robert Burns, awtho a Scot his ain sel, wis the maist weel-kent uiser o the apologetic apostrophe, but its uiss bides in written Scots the day.

Antrin wirds in Scots haes a cutty form an a lang form; for ordinar an apostrophe is uised for tae shaw the wantin letters in the cutty form. Some examples:

Thare's an apostrophe forby in the bygane mak o wirds endin wi ee for tae evite haein three eee's in a wird:
dee  dee'd, gree  gree'd etc.

Apostrophes is for ordinar uised in Scots the selsame wey as in Inglis an aw, in the rinnin thegither o twa wirds sic as A'm, the're, it's an sae on.




#Article 47: Jacques Cartier (1362 words)


Jacques Cartier (31 December, 1491 – 1 September, 1557) wis a French traider an splorer that is thocht o as ane o the major discoverers o Canadae, or mair speceificlie, the inner eastren region that wad acome the foremaist European-settlt pairt o that kintra.

He wis frae Saint-Malo, Fraunce, born in the year 1491 tae a weel-respeckit faimlie o marinars. He bettered his social status in 1520 bi mairryin Catherine des Granches, member o a leadin gailley-ainin faimlie. His guid name in Saint-Malo is recognisit bi its monie appearances in baptismal registers as godfaither or witness.

Nae contemporary picter o Jacques Cartier haes been funnd an the best kent picter (see richt) wis pentit bi a Roushian airtist in 1839 for the ceity o Saunt-Malo.

Gey little is kent o Cartier's chairacter or personality but his professional abeilities can be eithly jaloused conseiderin that Cartier led three vaiges o discovery in nae mowes an hithertil unco watters athoot losin a gailey, that he entered intil an depairtit fae fiftie undiscovered herbours athoot sairious mishanter, an that the anerly seefairmen o his that deid wis victims o an epidemic ashore. Tharefor he micht be conseidered ane o the maist conscientious splorers o the time.

Jacques Cartier wis the first European tae descrive an cairt the Gulf o Saunt Lawrence an the shores o the Saunt Lawrence River, whilk he named The Kintra o Canadas, efter the Iroquois names for the twa big settlements he saw at Stadacona (Quebec Ceety) an at Hochelaga (Montreal Island).

The Keeng o Fraunce, François I, chuist him tae find certaines îles et pays où l'on dit qu'il se doit trouver grande quantité d'or et autres riches choses (certaint inchs an launds whaur it is quo thare are muckle quantities o gowd an ither riches). In 1534 he setten sail leukin for a wastren passage tae Asie. He sploret pairts o whit are the nou cried Newfoundland (stairtin on Mey 10 o that year) an the Canadian Maritimes an whaur he learnt o a river forder wast (the St. Lawrence River) that he believed micht be the fair rakit-for northwest passage. He landed for the first time at praisent day Gaspé, Quebec whaur he plauntit a cross an claimet the territory for Fraunce. Owre this vaige he teuk Domagaya an Taignoagny, the sons o Huron Heidsman Donnacona, back tae Europe.

Cartier setten sail on a seicont vaige on Mey 19 o the follaein year wi 3 gailey, 110 men, an the twa fremmit lads (wha wis returned tae the Heidsman). He sailed up the river for the first time an reached the steid o praisent-day Québec Ceity, hame o the Huron clachan o Stadacona whaur Donnacona wis reunitit wi his twa sons. Cartier left his main gaileys in a herbour naur tae Stadacona an uised his smallest gailey tae conteena upriver tae veesit Hochelaga (Montreal) an arrived on October 2, 1535. Hantle mair impressive than the smaa an fousome clachan o Stadacona, mair nor a thoosand Huron came tae the edge o the river tae greet the Frenchmen. The site o thair income haes been confidently identified as the beginnin o the Sainte-Marie sault, a location whaur the Jacques Cartier Brig nou stands.

Efter spendin twa day amang the Hurons o Hochelaga, Cartier returned tae Stadacona on October 11. It is no ken preceese whan Cartier decidit tae spend the winter o 1535-1536 in Canadae but the decision buist hae been makkit bi his income in Stadacona as it wis bi than owre ahint the haund tae return tae Fraunce. Cartier an his men prepared for winter bi strengthenin thair fort, hainin inglewid an sautin doun gemme an fish.

In throu that winter, Cartier compiled a kynd o gazetteer whilk includet several pages on the mainer o the natives, in parteecular thair prattick o wearing anerly leggings an moccasins e'en in the deid o winter.

Frae mid-November 1535 tae mid-Apryle 1536 the French fleet lay frozen solit at the gab o the St. Charles river, ablo the Rock o Quebec. Ice wis owre twa faddom thick in the river an snaw fower fit deep ashore. Tae add tae the discomfort, scurbie broke oot, first amang the Hurons an than amang the French. Bi mid-Februar, Cartier states that oot o 110 that we wis, no ten wis weel eneuch tae help the ithers, a thing peetifu tae see. Cartier estimates the coont o Hurons deid at 50.

Ane o the natives that survived wis Domagaya hou haed been taen tae Europe bi Cartier the year afore. He visited the French fort for a freendly ca, Cartier enquired an learnt o him that a concoction makkit frae a certaint tree cawet annedda wad cuir scurbie. Thon remeed probably sauft the expedeetion frae destruction an bi the end o the winter, 85 Frenchmen wis alive.

Ready tae sail back tae Fraunce in early Mey 1536, Cartier decidit tae kidnap Donnacona sae that he micht personally spin the tale o a kintra further north, cawet Saguenay, that wis quoet tae be fou o gowd, rubies an ither treisurs. Efter a arduous Vaige doun the St. Lawrence river an a three week Atlantic crossin, Cartier an his men arrived in Saint-Malo on Julie 15 1536.

That is hou the secoint an maist profitable o Cartier's vaiges endet, lestin fowerteen month. Haein awready locate the entrance, he nou opened up the greatest watterwey fae penetratin North Americae. He haed makkit an mensefu estimate o the resoorces o Canadae, baith naitral an human, mauger considerable exaggeration on the meeneral side. While some o his actions wi respect tae the natives wis dishonorable, he did his best tae staiblish freindship wi the Huron up an doun the Great River, an indispensable preliminary tae French Hame.

On Mey 23, 1541 Cartier depairtit Saunt-Malo on his thrid vaige wi five gailey. This time, ony thochts o finnin a passage tae the Orient wis forgotten an the goal wis tae fin the Kinrick o Saguenay an its riches an an wa tae establish a permanent Hame alenth the Saunt Lawrence River.

Anchorin at Stadacona on Augist 23 1541, Cartier met the Hurons but foond thair shaw o joy an thair nummers worrisome an decidit no tae big his Hame thare. Sailin nine mile up the river tae a spot he haed observed aforehaun, he decidit tae settle on the site o praisent day Cap-Rouge. The convicts an ither colonists wis laundit, the nowt whilk haed survived three month aboard gailey wis turnt lowse, earth brucken fae a kitchen gairden an seeds o kail, turmit an lettuce wis plauntit. A fortified hame wis sicwice shapit whilk wis named Charlesbourg-Ryal. Anither fort wis biggit on the falaise owerleukin the hame fas addit pertection.

The men begoud collectin cou-leddy-stane creestal (diamonds) an airn pyrites (gowd) an aw. Twa o the gaileys wis dispatched hame wi some meenerals on September 2.

Haein set tasks for awbodie, Cartier left wi the longboats for a reconnaissance o the Saguenay on 7t September. Haein reakit Hochelaga, bad wather an the numerous rapids preventit him tae conteena up tae the Ottawa river.

Returnin tae Charlesbourg-Royal, Cartier fins the situation uncannie. The Hurons nae langer makkit friendly veesits or peddled fish an gemme, but prowled aboot in a sinister manner. Nae records exists aboot the winter o 1541-1542 an the information maun be gleaned fae the few details providit frae returnin sailors. It seems that the Indians attackit an killt aboot 35 settlers afore the Frenchmen coud retreat ahint the fortifications. Een tho scurbie wis cuiret throu the native remedee, the impression left is o a general meeserie an o Cartier's growin conviction that he haed insufficient manpower baith tae pertect his base an tae gae in sairch o Saguenay. In early Juin 1542 awbodie boardit the three remainin ships for tae gae hame. Thay arrived back in Europe in October o 1542.

Cartier spent the lave o his life in Saunt-Malo an his naur aboots estate, an deed aged 66 on September 1 1557 frae an epidemic. He deed afore ony permanent European Hames wis makkit in Canadae; that haed tae wait for Samuel de Champlain in 1608.




#Article 48: Christopher Columbus (373 words)


Christopher Columbus (;  ndash; 20 Mey 1506) wis an Italian explorer, navigator, coloniser, an ceetizen o the Republic o Genoa. Unner the auspices o the Catholic Monarchs o Spain, he completit fower voyages athort the Atlantic Ocean. Thae voyages an his efforts tae establish permanent settlements on the island o Hispaniola ineetiatit the European colonisation o the New Warld.

Wastren imperialism an economic competeetion war emergin amang European kinricks throu the establishment o trade routes an colonies. Columbus proponed tae reach the East Indies bi sailin wastwaird, an this eventually received the support o the Spaingie Crown, which saw a chance tae enter the spice trade wi Asie throu a new wastwaird route. During his first voyage in 1492, he reached the New Warld insteid o arrivin at Japan as he haed intendit, laundin on an island in the Bahamas airchipelago that he named San Salvador. Ower the coorse o three mair voyages, he veesitit the Greater an Lesser Antilles, as well as the Caribbean coast o Venezuela an Central Americae, claimin aw o it for the Croun o Castile.

Columbus wisna the first European explorer tae reach the Americas, haein been precedit bi the Viking expedeetion led bi Leif Erikson in the 11t century, but his voyages led tae the first lastin European contact wi the Americas, inauguratin a period o European exploration, conquest, an colonisation that lastit several centuries. Thir voyages haed, tharefore, an enormous impact in the historical development o the modren Western warld. He spearheidit the transatlantic sclave trade an haes been accuised bi several historians o ineetiatin the genocide o the Hispaniola natives. Columbus himsel saw his accomplishments primarily in the licht o spreadin the Christian releegion.

Columbus niver admittit that he haed reached a continent previously unkent tae Europeans, rather nor the East Indies for which he haed set coorse. He cried the indwallers o the launds that he veesitit indios (Spaingie for Indies). His strained relationship wi the Spaingie croun an its appyntit colonial admeenistrators in Americae led tae his reest an dismissal as govrenor o the settlements on the island o Hispaniola in 1500, an later tae protractit litigation ower the benefits that he an his heirs claimed war awed tae them bi the croun.




#Article 49: Guido o Arezzo (637 words)


Guido o Arezzo (kent as Guido Aretinus, Guido Aretino, Guido da Arezzo, Guido Monaco, Guido d'Arezzo, Guido Monaco Pomposiano, or Guy of Arezzo or Guy d'Arezzo an aw) (991/992 – efter 1033) wis a muisic theorist o Mediaeval times. He is thocht o as the inventor o modren muisical notation (staff notation) the notation that replaced neumatic notation; his text, the Micrologus, wis the seicont-maist-widely distreibute wark on muisic in the Middle Ages (efter the writins o Boethius).

Guido wis a Benedictine monk frae the Italian city-state o Arezzo. Resairch has his Micrologus tae 1025 or 1026; since Guido stated in a letter that he wis 34 whan he scrieved it, his birth date is thocht tae be aroond 991 or 992. His airly thrift wis spent at the monastery o Pomposa, on the Adriatic coast near Ferrara. While there, he noted hou agalis the sangsters minded Gregorian chants.

He came up wi a wey fur teachin the sangsters tae lairn chants in a short time, an quickly became weel kent ootthrou northren Italy. Housoiver, aroond 1025 he wis forced tae leave the abbey due tae the hostility frae the ither monks at the abbey, wha gainstaund his muisical innovations. He flittit tae Arezzo, a toun wi nae abbey, but that did hae muckle cathedral sangsters. Bishop Tedald invited him tae see tae thair trainin. Giovanni Battista Doni is kent fur haein changed the name o note Ut (C), renaming it Do (in the Do Re Mi ... sequence kent as solfège). A seivent note, Si (frae the initials fur Sancte Iohannes, Latin fur St. John the Baptist) wis addit shortly efter tae complete the diatonic scale. In anglophone kintras, Si wis changed tae Ti bi Sarah Glover in the nineteent hunneryear sae that ivery syllable micht stairt wi a different letter (this freed up Si fur later uise as Sol-sharp an aw). Ti is uised in tonic sol-fa and in the sang Do-Re-Mi.

The Micrologus, scrieved at the cathedral an dedicatit tae Tedald, has Guido's teachin method as it had fordert bi that time. It suin gaint the attention o Pape John XIX, wha bid Guido come tae Rome. Maist like he traivelt there in 1028, but suin returnt tae Arezzo due tae puir heal. It wis then that he annoonced in a letter tae Michael o Pomposa () his discovery o the ut–re–mi muisical mnemonic. Puckle is kent o him efter this time.

Guido is gien credit fur the invention o the Guidonian haund, a wide uised mnemonic seistem whaur note names ar mappt tae pairts o the human haund. Houaniver, ainly a limitit form o the Guidonian haund is actual descrieved bi him, an the fu elaboratit seistem o naitural, haurd an saft hexachords cannae be siccar attreibutit tae him.

In the 12t yearhunner, there wis a development in teachin an lairnin muisic in a mair eident manner. The haund, mair nor a hunneryear aifter his daith, alloued musickers tae label a speceific jynt or fingertip wi the gamut (kent as the hexachord in the modren era). The uiss o speceific jynts o the haund an fingertips changed the wey in that fowk wid lairn an keep in mind solmisation syllables. This technique wid become mair common in the 17t an 18t yearhunner. It alloued musickers tae sing an keep in mind langer sections o muisic an coonterpynt durin performance.

A statue tae him wis pit up in his hametoun o Arezzo. He is ane o the weel-kent Tuscans that wis honoured wi a statue in the Loggiatio o the Uffizi in Florence.

The computer notation seistem GUIDO music notation is cried efter him an his invention.

The International Guido d'Arezzo Polyphonic Contest (Concorso Polifónico Guido d'Arezzo) is cried efter him.

Francisco Valls' controversial Missa Scala Aretina teuk its name frae Guido Aretinus' scale.




#Article 50: Willem Barentsz (205 words)


Willem Barents (1550? − 20 Juin 1597, Dutch name Barentsz) wis a Dutch navigator an explorer, leader o aerlie expedeetions in far northren watters.

In 1594 he sailed frae Amsterdam wi twa gaileys for ti graip for the Northeast passage ti aestren Asie. He reached the wast coast o Novaya Zemlya, an follaed it northward, until he wis forced ti turn back whan bi its northren tip.

The follaein year he commaundit anither expedeetion o sieven gaileys, that sailed for the strait atween the Asie coast an Vaygach Island, but wis ower late ti finnd clear watter. His thrid trip failed forby an endit wi his daith. That time he haed twa ships, an on the gate oot sichtit Beir Island an Svalbard (kent as Spitsbergen forby), whaur the gaileys pairtit. Barents' veshel, aifter gaun aboot the north o Novaya Zemlya, wis catched in the ice an the crew haed ti winter on Novaya Zemlya, strippin thair gailey's deckhooses an spare timmer for ti big a ludge. Sin the gailey wisna free'd frae the ice till aerlie in 1597, Barents pairty left her in twa open boats on 13 June 1597 an maist o the crew escaped. Houaniver Barents hissel dee'd on 20 June 1597.




#Article 51: James Cook (237 words)


James Cook ( – 14 Februar 1779) wis a Breetish explorer an a navigator. He was a cairt maker forbye. He made three voyages tae the Paceefic Ocean, chairtin its main shorelines.

James Cook was born in Marton in North Yorkshire on , naur whit is the day recognized as the town of Middlesbrough. Cook was ane o five bairns born tae Grace an James, Sr., wha wrocht as a day labourer on a ferm. As a bairn, Cook flittit wi his familie tae Great Ayton. 
Whan Cook wis saxteen, he wis prenticed tae a shopkeeper in the fishin clachan o Staithes. Gaun bi tradeetion, it wis durin his time thare that Cook first felt the tice o the sea whan govin oot the shop windae. Efter aboot a year an a hauf in Staithes, the shop fiar brocht Cook tae the naurby port toun o Whitby an introduced him tae the shipwricht John Walker, that gied him employ as a prentice on a collier that distributit coal alang the Inglis coast. Whan wirkin tae Walker, Cook begoud tae study algebra, trigonometry, navigation, an astronomy, skeels he wad need ae day for tae commaund his ain gailey. Cook rose in the ranks o the merchand fleet but tint the commaund o his ain collier in 1755 on the e'en o the navigation Years War for tae stairt ower at the neathmaist  level in the Breetish Ryal Navy.




#Article 52: Hernán Cortés (153 words)


Hernán Cortés (1485 - 2 December, 1547) wis a explorer an Sodger frae Spain. Atween 1519 an 1521 he conquered the Aztec empire o Emperor Montezuma.

Cortés wis born in Medellín, a toun in the Extremadura province o the Kinrik o Castile in Spain. He gaed tae the Varsity o Salamanca but drapped oot whan 17 year auld. He chose tae try his luck in the New Warld.

He gaed tae the New Warld in 1506. He teuk a haund in the conquest o Hispaniola an Cuba. In 1519 he stairtit frae Cuba bi gailey an gaed ti Yucatán. In Yucatán he conquered the Aztec empire. Cortés saa the caipital o the empire Tenochtitlán, an wis surprised tae see that the ceity wis as great as Constantinople. Later in 1521 he destroyed it.

Cortés returned frae Honduras. Aifter he gaed back tae Spain wi a great treisure. He dee'd in Seville in 1547.




#Article 53: Vasco da Gama (179 words)


Vasco da Gama (1469? − 24 December 1524) wis a Portuguese sailor. He wis the first European that gaed ti Indie aboot the Cape o Guid Howp, the sooth tip o Africae. He gaed ti Indie twice bi ship, atween 1497 an 1499.

On 8 Julie 1497, fower ships (the São Gabriel, the São Rafael, the Berrio, an a bairge that's name isna kent) sailed frae Lisbon an his first trip ti Indie stairtit. Afore him naebodie haed raxed Sooth Africae. Wi Christenmas near, thay gied the coast thay war passin the name o Natal (Christenmas in Portuguese), that it aye haes til this day. Bi Januar thay haed raxed the laund nou kent as Mozambique, Arab-controlled laund on the East Africae coast that wis pairt o the Indie Ocean's netwark o troke. Haein gotten that faur, da Gama coud uise a pilot at Malindi, that brocht the expedeetion the lave o the gate ti Calicut (the Malayalam name is Kozhikode) on the soothwast coast o Indie on 20 Mey 1498. He wun back ti Portugal in September 1499.




#Article 54: Ferdinand Magellan (245 words)


Ferdinand Magellan (1480–1521; ; ) wis a Portuguese explorer. He wis born in Sabrosa, in northren Portugal, but later obtained Spaingie naitionality in order tae serve Keeng Charles I o Spain in sairch o a wastward route tae the Spice Islands (modren Maluku Islands in Indonesie).

Magellan's expedeetion o 1519–1522 became the first expedeetion tae sail frae the Atlantic Ocean intae the Pacific Ocean (then named peaceful sea bi Magellan; the passage bein made via the Strait o Magellan), an the first tae cross the Pacific. It an aa completit the first circumnavigation o the Yird, awtho Magellan hissel did no complete the entire voyage, bein killed durin the Battle o Mactan in the Philippines. (Magellan haed, housomeivver, travelled eastwards tae the Malay Peninsula on an earlier voyage, sae he became ane o the first explorers tae cross aw o the meridians o the globe.) O the 237 men who set oot on five ships, ae 18 completit the circumnavigation an managed tae return tae Spain in 1522, led bi the Basque navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano, who teuk ower command o the expedeetion efter Magellan's daith. Seiventeen ither men arrived later in Spain: twal men captured bi the Portuguese in Cape Verde some weeks earlier an atween 1525 an 1527, an five survivors o the Trinidad.

Magellan an aa gies his name tae the Magellanic Penguin, which he wis the first European tae note, an the Magellanic clouds, nou kent tae be nearby dwarf galaxies.
 




#Article 55: Marco Polo (1378 words)


Marco Polo (1254 - 8 Januar 1324) wis an Italian merchant. He gaed ti Cheenae durin the Mongol Dynasty. He wis weel kent acause Europeans foond the accoont o his traivels ti be gey interestin an unco. Westren fowk in thae days didna ken the Eastren world.

Antrin scholars thinks that Marco Polo gaed ti Cheenae, but didna gang til aa the places spikken aboot in his beuk.

Born intil a Venetian Merchant faimlie o walth, Marco Polo gaed throu his bairnheid maistly  athoot his paurents. His mither haed dee'd whan he wes smaw an bein frae a weel-kent merchant faimlie meant at his faither (Niccolo) an his uncle (Maffio) war baith agate the maist feck o his upbring acause o thare tredd in jewels.

Insteid Marco wes luiked efter bi his aunt an uncle, wha seen him weel-leired as a youth wi classes i the like o Frainch an Italian, alang wi bein leared i classical authors, Christian Theologie o the Laitin Kirk an the mair hamelt teachin o appraisal, fremmit siller tredd an the haundlin o cargo ships.

His faither an uncle haed retoured tae Venice in  1269 whaur Marco wes reunitit wi them. The Brithers Polo haed traiveled as faur as Cheenae (aforehaund cryed Cathay) whaur thay haed met wi the Heid o the Mongols, Kublai Khan. Kublai Khan bade at his coort in Beijing and wes hissel the grandson o the gret an pouerfu Genghis Khan. Tho thay war pairt o a diplomatic mission the Brithers Polo maun hae been faur ben wi Kublai Khan wham haed let on that he haed an interess in Christianity an speirt gin the brithers wad collogue wi the Pape anent Khan wha bad the brithers retour wi haly watter an a hunder leared priests forbye.

The Pape at thon time Clement IV haed no lang dee'd an the twa brithers haed bade twa year keen on a new Pape bein electit. In 1271 thay taen thare affgaun alang wi the yung Marco settin oot  for the Mongol coort o Kublai Khan.

Whan thay raxed til Acre in Israel, the Papal Legate Teobaldo o Piacenza haed gien thaim letters for the Mongol Imperor, but efter twa three days traivel the convoy gat wittins o a new electit Pape an war bad retour tae Acre for tae be plenished wi legit Papal Papers an twa Friars for tae traivel wi them. Tho baith friars coudnae thole the jurney an abandouned the Polo pairtie no lang efter the affin.

The jurney gaed ower land at taen the group throu roch Kintries, but thay war keen wi adventur an Marco haed a gleg ee for mindin on the cultur an places he seen at he wad wryte o later. Whit he seen oot throu aw thair traivels wad bring his accoont tae a Westren audience o the Geographie an customs o the lands Aestwarts alang wi its strauchles an ferlies.
At lang an lenth efter fower year traivelin the Polo's haed gotten til Cheenae an The Coort o Kublai Khan wha nou bade in his Simmer Pailace at Xanado ,his muckle mairble ferlie at beglamoured the yung Marco Polo.

At the ootset the Polos haednae planned tae be awa nae mair nor a wheen year, houanever at the hinner end  thay bade awa mair nor twintie three year.
Thay war eith acceptit intil the Coort o Kublai Khan an war gien gey faur ben access for ootlins. The aulder Polo's war gien poseitions o import forbye Marco wham Khan wes fair fittit wi ower his abeilities as a Merchant an his skeill wi haen maisterie o fower leids alsae.

Marco Polo wes bidden bi Kublai Khan tae cairry oot his wirk as speicial envoy an wes ootpit tae monie ferliesome airts that nae European haed ever seen the like o afore.
India, Burma an Tibet war a hantle o Lands Marco Polo traiveled tae an aye wi him a graved metal package frae Kublai Khan as innin an guarantee.
Polo serred as Governor o a Ceity in Cheenae as the years gaed by an wes hissel appyntit bi Kublai Khan as Offecial o the Privy Cooncil, an at ae time becam tax Inspector o the ceity o Yanzhou.

The knawledge ingaithered bi Marco Polo anent the Mongol Impire kythed i his later stories an shawed him tae be stoondit wi sic ferlies lik the Impire's uiss o paper siller for tredd at sae faur haedna raxed the lenth o Europe, an aye he wrate o the wunnersome cultur o the fowk he'd met in wi an growne fain o.

Efter 17 year athin the Coort o Kublai Khan the Polos  war fidgin fain tae be on the gate hame, maistlins adae wi the fack at Kublai Khan wes near 80 year auld. Wi foresicht, the Polos kent at the possibility o his daith an sicwyce a cheynge o ruler forbye micht gie wey tae unsikker times aheid for the faimlie.
Alang wi thir thochts fortune cam thair wey whan in 1292 cam news o a Mongol Princess Kokochin at wes tae traivel tae Persia tae bi mairriet on a Persian Prince Arghun Khan. The Polos haed lat ken at thay war willin for tae chum the Princess wi her jurney , an tho firstlins this haed mispleased Kublai Khan he at lenth greed tae thair waygang.

Wi 14 ships an 600 sailors alsae the Princess an the Polo faimlie haed set furth frae the port o Quanzhou (Zaiton) sailin soothwart. The jurney wes a sair ane an monie o the fowk abuird haed dee'd wi seickness or acause o the storms an roch wather.

Whan thay haed raxed til the Persian port o Hormuz thare war ainlie echteen fowk alive; amang thaim war the Princess an the Polo men.
Efterhaund in Turkey maist o the faimly's walth an gear wes pauchled by Genoese offeicials but efter a twa year jurney the Polos landit in Venice. At thare hamecomin thay met wi monie a kinch maistweys tae dae wi thaim bein awa mair nor twintie year. Thare faces war unkent tae thair faimlie an thay haed tint a guid bit o thair hamelt langage efter sae lang a time awa.

The fowk o Europe lairned o Marco Polo's traivel in Asiae throu the furthsettin o his buik cryed The Traivels o Marco Polo, tho it wes gien the tae nemm o Il Milione or The Million lees. The ferlies wrutten aboot war split new tae fowk an monie critics jaloused his screivins tae be haivers an that Polo haed made up the feck o his stories.

The buik itsel wes ainlie wrutten wi the help o a preisonar feir Rusticello da Pisa wha is creditit wi haen wrutten the buik  efter Polo wes claucht an jyled bi the Genoese efter Marco haed taen pairt in a Naval battle agin Genoa. Marco Polo aye stuid wi his buik an monie adventurers i years tae come cryed the buik a gret influence tae them.
The buik wes owerset intil Frainch, Italian an Laitin an made the nemm o Marco Polo faur kent in Europe an furth o it.

Efter Marco Polo wes lowsed frae jyle i 1299 he retoured tae Venice whaur he wes mairriet on Donata Bedoer in 1300 and faithered three dochters: Fantina, Bellela an Moreta.
He cairried on wi the faimlie business for 25 year til 1324 whan he dee'd at his hame in Venice.
At the hinnerend o his life wi faimlie, freends an fans aw aroond him he wes speirt at gin he wad admeit at monie o the stories at kythed i his buik war juist haivers an lees, but he wadna be dauntit an faurer sayed at he haedna wrutten o hauf the ferlies he'd seen.

The feck o whit Marco Polo is sayed tae hiv seen athin his buik haes been funnd tae be richt acause o resairch taen on bi futur explorers.
Tho durand his lifetime Marco Polo wesnae gien the credit he deserred an it wes ainlie efter his daith at he truelins becam recogneised athort the warld.
Christopher Columbus hissel telt o whan he gaed furth for tae discuiver the Orient, he taen wi him a copy o The Traivels o Marco Polo..




#Article 56: Archimedes (210 words)


Archimedes (287 B.C. – 212 B.C.) wis a Greek philosopher, astronomer, pheesicist, ingineer an a fine mathemateecian born in the Greek seaport colonie o Syracuse. He is conseedert bi some maths historians tae be ane o history's bestest mathemateecians, alang wi the likes o Newton, Gauss, an Euler.

Archimedes becam a weel-likit withie as an affcome o his involvement in the defence o Syracuse conter the Roman siege in the First an Seicont Punic Weirs. He is reputit tae hae hauden the Romans aff wi weir machines o his ain design; tae hae been able tae muive a fou-bouk gailey stappit fou wi wi crew an fraucht bi pullin an aesome raip; tae hae diskivered the preenciples o density an buoyancy that's kent as Archimedes' preenciple an aw, whan haein a bath (syne taein tae the toun nakit heuchterin eureka - A hae fund it!); an tae hae cleckit the irrigation luim cried the Archimedean feeze.

Anither weel kent Archimedes storie tells that a king thocht he wis bein cheatit o his siller, sin he thocht his croun wisna richt gowd. Archimedes uised a theory aboot watter displacement caused bi wecht for tae finnd oot that the croun did hae siller in't, atho the keeng haed peyed for richt gowd.




#Article 57: Nicolaus Copernicus (101 words)


Nicolaus Copernicus (in Laitin; German: Niklas Koppernigk, Pols Mikołaj Kopernik); 19 Februar, 1473 – 24 Mey, 1543) wis a Pols astronomer, mathematician an economist that cam up wi the heliocentric (Sun-centred) theory o the solar seestem in a form detailt eneuch tae mak it scienteefically uisefu.

Copernicus wis born in 1473 in the ceety o Thorn (Toruń) in Ryal Proushie. There's a story that the first pres wis pitten intil Copernicus's haunds the same day he dee'd, sae that he coud say guidbye tae his opus vitae. They say that he waukent frae a coma, keekit at his beuk, an dee'd.




#Article 58: Charles Darwin (491 words)


Charles Robert Darwin,  (; 12 Februar 1809 – 19 Aprile 1882) wis an Inglis naituralist, geologist an biologist, kent best fir his theory a evolution. He wis thinkin aw species o life hae descendit ower time frae common ancestors. Ats now kent as richt, aun a foundational concept fur scientists the day.

Wurkin wi Alfred Russel Wallace, he forwart scientific theory that all species a life decended fae eachother. This sinderin paitern a evolution wis cried naitural selection. A'hings struggle fir existence is awfy similar tae artificial selection in selective breedin.

Darwin is ane a the maist influential folk in human historie fir sure. Darwin furthset his theory o evolution wi compellin evidence in his 1859 beuk On the Origin of Species, owercomin scientific rejection o earlier concepts o transmutation o species. Bi the 1870s, the scientific commonity an maist leart fowk war insense't wi the idea o evolution wis true. Houaniver, mony war mair taen wi competin explanations an it wis nae till efter the modren evolutionary synthesis o the 1930s tae the 1950s that braid concord wi keppit wi that naitural selection is the steidin evolution is biggit on. Darwin's scientific wark is the maist-muckle theory o the life sciences, an expones the diversity o life.

Darwin taen a conceit wi naitur early on, whilk gart him mislippin his medical learnin at the Varsity o Edinburgh; insteid, he gied ae haund tae speir intil marine invertebrates. Studies at the Varsity o Cambridge (Christ's College) steert up his luve o naitural science. Efter ae five-year vaige on , he wis ae weel-forrit geologist wi observes an theories that fordert Charles Lyell's uniformitarian ideas, an the furthsettin o his jurnal o the vaige gart him ae kenspeckle author.

Bumbazelt wi the geografi distribution o beasts an fossils gaithert on the vaige, Darwin pit doun ae puckle o jottins, an frae them biggit his theory o naitural selection in 1838 . Thou he haed communes wi ae hantle ither naituralists about his ideas, he haedna time for richt canny resairch an his geological wark wis aye pit abuin aathin. In 1858, whiles screivin his theory in 1858, Alfred Russel Wallace sent him ae quair that pit forrit the same idea, garrin the jynt furthsettin o baith o thair theories belive. Darwin's wark establisht evolutionary strynd wi modification as the mucklest scientific raison ahint sinderins in naitur. In 1871 he speirt intil human evolution an sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, follaed bi The Expression of the Emotions in Man an Animals (1872). His resairch on plants wis furthset in a series o beuks, an in his lest beuk, The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Actions of Worms (1881), he leukit at swinkies an their eftercasts on syle.

Darwin, the day, is kent as ane o the maist influential fowk o aa time, an he wis gien the mense o bein yirdit in Wastminster Abbey.




#Article 59: Albert Einstein (465 words)


Albert Einstein (; ; 14 Mairch 1879 – 18 Apryle 1955) wis a German-born theoretical physicist. He developpit the theory o relativity, ane o the twa pillars o modren physics (alangside quantum mechanics). Einstein's work is forby kent for its influence on the filosofie o science. Einstein is best kent in popular cultur for his mass–energy equivalence formula  (which haes been dubbed the warld's maist famous equation). He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his services tae theoretical physics, an especially for his diskivery o the law o  the photoelectric effect, a pivotal step in the evolution o quantum theory.

Near the beginnin o his career, Einstein thocht that Newtonian mechanics wisna eneuch ony mair fur tae reconcile the laws o clessical mechanics wi the laws o the electromagnetic field. This led him tae develop his special theory o relativity throu his time at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern, Swisserland. Briefly afore, he aquired the Swiss ceetizenship in 1901, whilk he kept for his hale life, efter bein stateless for mair nor five year. He realised, housomever, that the principle o relativity coud forby be extendit tae gravitational fields, an wi his subsequent theory o gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on general relativity. He continued tae deal wi problems o stateestical mechanics an quantum theory, whilk led tae his explanations o pairticle theory an the motion o molecules. He forby investigatit the thermal properties o licht whilk laid the foondation o the photon theory o licht. In 1917, Einstein applee'd the general theory o relativity tae model the lairge-scale structur o the universe.

He wis veesitin the Unitit States whan Adolf Hitler came tae pouer in 1933 an, bein Jewish, didnae gae back tae Germany, whaur he haed been a professor at the Berlin Academy o Sciences. He sattlet in the Unitit States, acomin an American ceetizen in 1940. On the een o Warld War II, he endorsed a letter tae Preses Franklin D. Roosevelt alertin him tae the potential development o extremely pouerful bombs o a new teep an recommendin that the U.S. begin seemilar resairch. This eventually led tae whit wad acome the Manhattan Project. Einstein supportit defendin the Allied forces, but generally denoonced the idea o uisin the newlins diskivert nuclear fission as a wappen. Later, wi the Breetish filosofer Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, whilk heichlichtit the danger o nuclear wappens. Einstein wis affiliatit wi the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, till his daith in 1955.

Einstein published mair nor 300 scienteefic papers alang wi ower 150 non-scienteefic warks. On 5 December 2014, varsities an archives annoonced the release o Einstein's papers, comprisin mair nor 30,000 unique documents. Einstein's intellectual achievements an oreeginality haes made the wird Einstein synonymous wi genius.




#Article 60: Thomas Edison (175 words)


Thomas Alva Edison (11 Februar, 1847 – 18 October, 1931) wis an American inventor an businessman that cleckit monie important luims. The Wizard o Menlo Park wis ane o the first inventors til applee the principles o mass production ti the process o invention. In 1880 Edison foondit the jurnal Science, that in 1900 becam the jurnal o the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Edison is conseidered ane o the maist proleific inventors o his time, haudin a record 1,093 patents in his name. Maist o thir inventions wisna oreiginal but betterments o aerlier patents, an wis raelly cleckit bi his monie warkers. Edison wis aften creiticised for nae sharin the credit. Houaniver, Edison gat patents warldwide, in, amang ither places, the United States, Unitit Kinrick, Fraunce, an Germany. Edison stairtit the Motion Picture Patents Company, that wis a conglomerate o nine big film studios (better kent as the Edison Trust). Edison cleckit the diamont listenin record an aw whaur he uised his productit phonograph for tae play a thich  80 rpm record.




#Article 61: Enrico Fermi (581 words)


 Enrico Fermi (29 September 1901 – 28 November 1954) wis an Italian-American physicist an the creautor o the warld's first nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1. He haes been cried the airchitect o the nuclear age an the airchitect o the atomic bomb. He wis ane o the verra few physicists in history tae excel baith theoretically an experimentally. Fermi held several patents relatit tae the uise o nuclear pouer, an wis awairdit the 1938 Nobel Prize in Physics for his wirk on induced radioactivity bi neutron bombardment an the diskivery o transuranic elements. He made signeeficant contreibutions tae the development o quantum theory, nuclear an pairticle physics, an stateestical mechanics.

Fermi's first major contreibution wis tae statistical mechanics. Efter Wolfgang Pauli annoonced his exclusion principle in 1925, Fermi follaed wi a paper in that he applee'd the principle tae an ideal gas, employin a stateestical formulation nou kent as Fermi–Dirac stateestics. The day, pairticles that obey the exclusion principle are cried fermions. Later Pauli postulatit the exeestence o an unchairged inveesible pairticle emittit alang wi an electron in beta decay, tae satisfee the law o conservation o energy. Fermi teuk up this idea, developin a model that incorporatit the postulatit pairticle, that he named the neutrino. His theory, later referred tae as Fermi's interaction an still later as waik interaction, descrived ane o the four fundamental forces o nature. Throu experiments inducin radioactivity wi recently diskivered neutrons, Fermi diskivered that slow neutrons war mair easily capturt nor fest anes, an developed the Fermi age equation tae descrive this. Efter bombardin thorium an uranium wi slaw neutrons, he concludit that he haed creatit new elements; awtho he wis awairdit the Nobel Prize for this diskivery, the new elements war subsequently revealed tae be fission products.

Fermi left Italy in 1938 tae escape new Italian Racial Laws that affectit his Jewish wife Laura Capon. He emigratit tae the Unitit States whaur he wirked on the Manhattan Project in Warld War II. Fermi led the team that designed an biggit Chicago Pile-1, that went creetical on 2 December 1942, demonstratin the first artifeecial sel-susteenin nuclear cheen reaction. He wis on haund whan the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, went creetical in 1943, an whan the B Reactor at the Hanford Site did sae the next year. At Los Alamos he heidit F Division, pairt o that wirked on Edward Teller's thermonuclear Super bomb. He wis present at the Trinity test on 16 Julie 1945, whaur he used his Fermi method tae estimate the bomb's yield.

Efter the war, Fermi served unner J. Robert Oppenheimer on the General Advisory Committee, that advised the Atomic Energy Commission on nuclear maiters an policy. Follaein the detonation o the first Soviet fission bomb in August 1949, he strangly opposed the development o a hydrogen bomb on baith moral an technical grunds. He wis amang the scientists that testifee'd on Oppenheimer's behauf at the 1954 hearin that resultit in the denial o the latter's siccarity clearance. Fermi did important wirk in pairticle physics, especially relatit tae pions an muons, an he speculatit that cosmic rays arose throu material bein acceleratit bi magnetic fields in interstellar space. Mony awairds, concepts, an institutions are named efter Fermi, includin the Enrico Fermi Awaird, the Enrico Fermi Institute, the Fermi Naitional Accelerator Laboratory, the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, the Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generatin Station, an the synthetic element fermium, makkin him ane o 16 scientists that hae elements named efter them.




#Article 62: Science feection (102 words)


Science feection is scrievin that for ordinar taks place in the futur, an is quite weel-likit. Thare's monie forms o it sic as Cyberpunk, Hard Science Fiction, an Soft Science Fiction. Monie fowk threaps that the novelle Frankenstein wis the first science feection novelle, but awtho it coud hae been the first it wisna till the Dime Novels o the 1920-30s, an the pulps o the 1950s that fowk taen tae it.

Ray Bradbury, Isaac Asimov, Fred Pohl, an Theodore Sturgeon is amang the maist kenspeckle science feection writers.

Ae science feection novelle in Wir Leid is But'N'Ben A-Go-Go bi Matthew Fitt.




#Article 63: Unitit States (2046 words)


The Unitit States o Americae (), commonly referred tae as the Unitit States (, U.S.) or Americae (), is a constitutional federal republic componed o 50 states, a federal destrict, five major sel-govrening territories, an various possessions.
Forty-aicht o the fifty states an the federal destrict are contiguous an locatit in North Americae atween Canadae an Mexico. The state o Alaska is in the northwast corner o North Americae, bordered bi Canadae tae the east an athort the Bering Strait frae Roushie tae the wast. The state o Hawaii is an airchipelago in the mid-Paceefic Ocean. The U.S. territories are scattered aboot the Paceefic Ocean an the Caribbean Sea. Nine time zones are covered. The geografie, climate an wildlife o the kintra are extremely diverse.

At 3.8 million squerr miles (9.8 million km2) an wi ower 324 million fowk, the Unitit States is the warld's fowert-lairgest kintra bi tot aurie (an fowerth-mucklest bi laund aurie) an the third-maist populous. It is ane o the warld's maist ethnically diverse an multicultural naitions, an is hame tae the warld's mucklest immigrant population. Urbanisation climbed tae oweer 80% in 2010 an leads tae growin megaregions. The kintra's caipital is Washington, D.C. an its mucklest ceety is New York Ceety; the ither major metropolitan auries, aw wi aroond five million or mair indwallers, are Los Angeles, Chicago, San Francisco, Boston, Dallas, Philadelphia, Houston, Miami, an Atlanta.

Paleo-Indians migrated frae Asie tae the North American mainland at least 15,000 year ago. European colonisation began in the 16t century. The Unitit States emerged frae 13 Breetish colonies alang the East Coast. Numerous disputes atween Great Breetain an the colonies in the eftermath o the Seiven Years' War led tae the American Revolution, whilk began in 1775. On Julie 4, 1776, as the colonies war fichtin Great Breetain in the American Revolutionary War, delegates frae the 13 colonies unanimously adoptit the Declaration o Unthirldom. The war endit in 1783 wi recogneetion o the unthirldom o the Unitit States bi Great Breetain, an wis the first successfu war o unthirldom against a European colonial empire. The current constitution wis adoptit in 1788, efter the Airticles o Confederation, adoptit in 1781, war felt tae hae providit inadequate federal pouers. The first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill o Richts, war ratified in 1791 an designed tae guarantee mony fundamental ceevil liberties.

The Unitit States embarked on a vigorous expansion athort North Americae throuoot the 19t century, displacin American Indian tribes, acquirin new territories, an gradually admittin new states till it spanned the continent in 1848. During the seicont hauf o the 19t century, the American Ceevil War led tae the end o legal slavery in the kintra. Bi the end o that century, the Unitit States extendit intae the Paceefic Ocean, an its economy, driven in muckle pairt bi the Industrial Revolution, began tae soar. The Spaingie–American War an  confirmed the kintra's status as a global militar pouer. The Unitit States emerged frae  as a global superpouer, the first kintra tae develop nuclear wappens, the anly kintra tae uise them in warfare, an a permanent member o the Unitit Naitions Security Cooncil. It is a foondin member o the Organisation o American States (OAS) an various ither Pan-American an internaitional organisations. The end o the Cauld War an the dissolution o the Soviet Union in 1991 left the Unitit States as the warld's sole superpouer.

The Unitit States is a heichly developed kintra, wi the warld's mucklest economy bi nominal GDP. It ranks heichly in several meisurs o socioeconomic performance, includin average wage, human development, per capita GDP, an productivity per person. While the U.S. economy is considered post-industrial, chairacterised bi the dominance o services an knawledge economy, the manufacturin sector remains the seicont-mucklest in the warld. Tho its population is anly 4.3% o the warld tot, the Unitit States accoonts for nearly a quarter o warld GDP an ower a third o global militar spendin, makkin it the warld's foremaist economic an militar pouer. The Unitit States is a prominent poleetical an cultural force internaitionally, an a leader in scienteefic resairch an technological innovations.

Follaein the European colonisation o the Americaes, aw thirteen o Great Breetain's American colonies spleet frae the mither kintra an formit the Unitit States, the warld's first constitutional an democratic federal republic, efter thair declaration o unthirldom in 1776 an the Weir o Unthirldom (1775–1783). Great Breetain made peace wi the rebols an wi the Treaty o Pairis in 1783. For tae mak a stoot colonol govrenment, the Philadelphia Convention wis foondit in 1787 an raitifeet a constitution in 1788, an the farst Unitit States Senate, Hoose o Representatives, an preses tak office in 1789. George Washington wis the first preses.

Differences o opinion an social order atween northren an soothern states in early Unitit States society, pairteecularly regairdin Black sclavery, ultimately led tae the American Ceevil War. Follaein the Union victory in 1865, three amendments war addit tae the U.S. Constitution: the Thirteent Amendment prohibitit sclavery, the Fowerteent Amendment providit ceetizenship tae the nearly fower million African Americans wha haed been sclaves, an the Fifteent Amendment ensured that thay haed the richt tae vote.

The Unitit States remained neutral frae the ootbreak o Warld War I, in 1914, till 1917 whan it jyned the war as an associatit pouer, alangside the formal Allies o Warld War I, helpin tae turn the tide against the Central Pouers. In 1920, the weemen's richts muivement wan passage o a constitutional amendment grantin weemen's suffrage. The 1920s an 1930s saw the rise o radio for mass communication an the invention o early televeesion. The prosperity o the Roaring Twenties endit wi the Wall Street Crash o 1929 an the onset o the Great Depression. Efter his election as preses in 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt respondit wi the New Deal, whit included the establishment o the Social Security seestem. At first effectively neutral during Warld War II while Germany conquered much o continental Europe, the Unitit States began supplyin material tae the Allies in Mairch 1941 throu the Lend-Lease programme. On December 7, 1941, the Empire o Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, promptin the Unitit States tae jyn the Allies against the Axis pouers. The Unitit States developed the first nuclear wappens an uised them on Japan in the ceeties o Hiroshima an Nagasaki; causin the Japanese tae surrender on September 2, endin Warld War II.

Efter Warld War II the Unitit States an the Soviet Union jockeyed for pouer during whit acame kent as the Cauld War, driven bi an ideological divide atween caipitalism an communism an, accordin tae the schuil o geopolitics, a divide atween the maritime Atlantic an the continental Eurasian camps. American truips focht communist Cheenese an North Korean forces in the Korean War o 1950–53. The Soviet Union's 1957 launch o the first airtifeecial satellite an its 1961 launch o the first manned spaceflicht ineetiatit a Space Race in whit the Unitit States acame the first naition tae laund a man on the muin in 1969. A proxy war in Sootheast Asie eventually evolved intae full American pairteecipation, as the Vietnam War. At hame in the 1960s, the growin Ceevil Richts Muivement uised nonviolence tae confront segregation an discrimination, wi Martin Luther King Jr. acomin a prominent leader an figurheid.

The late 1980s, unner the presidency o Ronald Reagan, brocht a thowe in relations wi the USSR, an its collapse in 1991 finally endit the Cauld War.

On September 11, 2001, Al-Qaeda terrorists struck the Warld Trade Center in New York Ceety an the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., killin nearly 3,000 fowk. In response, the Unitit States launched the War on Terror, whilk included war in Afghanistan an the 2003–11 Iraq War.

Unner Preses Barack Obama, American forces in Iraq war widrawn in muckle nummers in 2009 an 2010, an the war in the region wis declared formally ower in December 2011. The widrawal caused an escalation o sectarian insurgency, leadin tae the rise o the Islamic State o Iraq an the Levant, the successor o al-Qaeda in the region.

The laund aurie o the contiguous Unitit States is . Alaska, separatit frae the contiguous Unitit States bi Canadae, is the mucklest state at . Hawaii, occupyin an airchipelago in the central Paceefic, soothwast o North Americae, is  in aurie. The populatit territories o Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, Northren Mariana Islands, an U.S. Virgin Islands thegither civer .

The Unitit States, wi its muckle size an geografic variety, includes maist climate teepes. Tae the east o the 100t meridian, the climate ranges frae humid continental in the north tae humid subtropical in the sooth. The Great Plains wast o the 100t meridian are semi-arid. Much o the Wastren moontains hae an alpine climate. The climate is arid in the Great Basin, desert in the Soothwast, Mediterranean in coastal Californie, an oceanic in coastal Oregon an Washington an soothren Alaska. Maist o Alaska is subarctic or polar. Hawaii an the soothren tip o Florida are tropical, as are the populatit territories in the Caribbean an the Paceefic.

The U.S. ecology is megadiverse: aboot 17,000 species o vascular plants occur in the contiguous Unitit States an Alaska, an ower 1,800 species o flouering plants are foond in Hawaii, few o whit occur on the mainland. The Unitit States is hame tae 428 mammal species, 784 bird species, 311 reptile species, an 295 amphibian species. Aboot 91,000 insect species hae been describit. The bauld eagle is baith the naitional bird an naitional ainimal o the Unitit States, an is an endurin seembol o the kintra itsel.

The Unitit States is hame tae mony culturs an a wide variety o ethnic groups, tradeetions, an values. Aside frae the Hamespun American, Hamespun Hawaiian, an Hamespun Alaskan populations, nearly aw Americans or thair ancestors settled or emigratit within the past five centuries. Mainstream American cultur is a Wastren cultur mucklely derived frae the tradeetions o European emigrants wi influences frae mony ither soorces, sic as tradeetions brocht bi slaves frae Africae.

Mainstream American cuisine is seemilar tae that in ither Wastren kintras. Chairactereestic dishes sic as aiple pie, fried chicken, pizza, hamburgers, an het dogs derive frae the recipes o various emigrants. French fries, Mexican dishes sic as burritos an tacos, an pasta dishes freely adaptit frae Italian soorces are widely consumed. Americans drink three times as much coffee as tea. Mercatin bi U.S. industries is mucklely responsible for makkin orange juice an milk ubiquitous breakfast beverages.

In leeturatur, Edgar Allen Poe, Emily Dickenson, Mark Twain, William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Herman Melville, an John Steinbeck are amang the maist weel kent Americans, while Jackson Pollock, Georgia O'Keefe, an Andy Warhol are some o the maist weel kent American painters.

Hollywood, a northren destrict o Los Angeles, Californie, is ane o the leaders in motion pictur production. Syne the early 20t century, the U.S. film industry haes mucklely been based in an aroond Hollywood, awtho in the 21st century an increasin nummer o films are nae made thare, an film companies hae been subject tae the forces o globalisation.

Muisic in Americae haes been influenced bi African-American cultur, wi Duke Ellington an Louis Armstrong pioneerin the Jazz genre. Elvis Presley an Buddy Holly war leadin airtists in pioneerin popular muisic in the 1950s. Syne then, the Unitit States haes produced mony popular airtists, includin Michael Jackson, Whitney Houston, Madonna, Katy Perry, Taylor Swift, an Beyoncé, amang mony ithers.

American fitbaa is the maist popular sport in the Unitit States. The National Football League (NFL) haes the heichest average attendance o ony sports league in the warld, an the Super Bowl is watched bi millions globally. Basebaw haes been regairdit as the U.S. naitional sport syne the late 19t century, wi Major League Baseball (MLB) bein the tap league. Basketbaw an ice hockey are the kintra's next twa leadin professional team sports, wi the tap leagues bein the National Basketball Association (NBA) an the National Hockey League (NHL).

Aight Olympic Gemmes hae taken place in the Unitit States. As o 2014, the Unitit States haes wan 2,400 medals at the Simmer Olympic Gemmes, mair nor ony ither kintra, an 281 in the Winter Olympic Gemmes, the seicont maist behind Norawa.




#Article 64: Richard Feynman (137 words)


 Richard Phillips Feynman (11 Mey, 1918 – 15 Februar, 1988) (surname said FINE-man;  in IPA) wis ane o the maist influential pheesicists o the 20t century, haein duin a deal o wark on the theory o quantum electrodynamics. As weel as bein an inspirin lecturer an amateur muisician, he holpit in the makkin o the atomic bomb an wis later a member o the buird that leukit intil the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. For his wark on quantum electrodynamics, Feynman wis gien the 1965 Nobel Prize in Pheesics alang wi Julian Schwinger an Sin-Itiro Tomonaga.

He is weel kent forby for his mony sprees, detailt in the beuks Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!, What Do You Care What Other People Think? an Tuva Or Bust!. Richard Feynman wis, in mony respects, an eccentric an a free speerit.




#Article 65: Fantasie an Science Fiction (103 words)


FSF (first cried The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction) is an American science feection an fantasie magazine furthset bi Spilogale press. It wis foondit in 1949 bi Anthony Boucher an J. Francis McComas.

It wis initially quarterly, than bi-monthly an finally monthly. As o 2005 it conteenas tae furthset leeterar science feection, fantasie an grue stories. Thare's nou 11 issues per year, includin an extendit anniversary dooble issue ilka October.

Editors throu the years haes includit Avram Davidson, Edward L. Ferman, Kristine Kathryn Rusch an the current editor Gordon Van Gelder. Aw o its editors haes mainteent a gey heich leeterar staundart.




#Article 66: Hippocrates (169 words)


Hippocrates wis a Greek doctor. He wis probably born in 460 BC, an dee'd in 377 BC.

Hippocrates is cried the Faither o medicine. He wis the first chiel ti scrieve o scientific raisons that fowk gat ill. Fowk uised ti believe that illness wis caused bi cantrips or mad gods.

Hippocrates scrievit anent the traitment o seek fowk. His writings are yit thocht important ti doctors the day. He stairted monie things that doctors aye study. Ae conceit he wrat aboot wis patient confidentiality. This is the conceit that doctors cannae tell onie ither bodie whit thair patients hae telt them. Anither conceit is that the doctor maunna ivver dae oniething ti skaithe a patient. 

The Hippocratic Oath is named efter him. This is a leet o things that he thocht a doctor shuid swear ti dae (atho fowk nou jalouse that Hippocrates probably didna screive it himsel). A new version that haes been edited ti keep up tae date is aye uised in medical schuils the day.




#Article 67: French leid (290 words)


French is the leid that's spak in Fraunce, Canadae (Quebec, New Brunswick), Soothren Belgium, Luxembourg (alang wi German and Letzebuergisch) an Wastren Swisserland (La suisse Romande). It wis spreid tae Africae, Sooth Aest Asie an pairts o the New Warld throu French colonisation. French is a Romance leid, meanin that it comes frae the Laitin leid. Like maist Romance leids, its nouns haes masculine an feminine gender.

In times bygane the Celtic fowk bydit in whit the day is Fraunce. In thae days the land wis cried Gallia or Gaul. Romans invadit Gallia an makkit pairts o it intae Roman provinces. Syne Romans spak the Laitin, the local fowk learnt the Laitin an stertit tae spaek it. Thair ain leid, Gaullic, wisna aften spak, altho the leids o Celtic oreegin is spak the day in some airts the like o Brittany.

The muckle pairt o French vocabulair comes frae Latin. Wirds are lent tae Latin till now, if they're lackin in the common leid.

We ignor hou Gauls leid haes impregnatit French leid. Mebbe a hunderd o wirds, as char/charrue (car/pleuch), mouton (mutton/sheep), crème (cream), an som ithers that come frae Latin uise o Gallis wirds. An for its impact on pronounciation, we dinnae ken till whit it is.

The Fransick (the Germanic leid o Dauntoners o Fraunce in the Early Middle-Eige), as a superstrate, haes gi'en aloot o important wirds (gris (grey), blanc (white), blond, bleu (blou), etc.)

Fraunce haes been the kintra wi the seicont biggest empire o the XIXt an XVIIIt centuries, jast efter England. Sae the cultural an lingueestic inheritance o French is gey important warldwide.

tae be: être (présent)

tae gang: aller (passé simple)

tae dae: faire (imparfait)

Manger (tae eat)

Tae eat (imperfect form)




#Article 68: Leid (105 words)


The concept o leid (cried langage forby) can be exponed in monie weys, fur exemple:

But the foremaist meanin o leid is human langage.

Some fowk says that ainimals haes leids or can be leart leids; ithers dinna gree wi this, an seys that ainimal leids isna complicate or meaninfu eneuch tae be cried leids, or that thay dinna hae the grammar needit tae be thocht o as leids; this o coorse lippens on the defeneition o leid a bodie is wirkin wi.

Mathaematics an computer science uises leids cried formal leids (like computer programmin leids). Mathematics itsel is conseidert a leid bi monie theorists.




#Article 69: Karl Marx (154 words)


Karl Marx (5t Mey 1818 in Trier, Germany – 14t Mairch 1883 in Lunnon, UK) wis a German philosopher and poleitical thinker that wrat aboot economics an politics. His first beuk wis the Communist Manifesto, written thegither wi Friedrich Engels in 1848. In this beuk thay set oot the ideas an ettles o the Communist muvement for the first time. His theories wis gien the name Marxism efterhaund, baith bi thaim that gree'd wi him an thaim that criticeesed him.

His maist important contreibution is thocht tae be his beuk Das Kapital that wis written ower monie decades; in it he analeesed, criticeesed, an gied the name tae the seestem o caipitalism. 
For the maist pairt it disagreed wi leiberal economic views an haes led tae gran debates atween its supporters an detractors. Juist the ae volume haed been feenisht bi the time Marx dee'd; Engels teuk his jots an completit twa mair volumes.




#Article 70: Lewis Grassic Gibbon (198 words)


Lewis Grassic Gibbon (13t Februar 1901 - 7t Februar 1935), born James Leslie Mitchell wis a Scots owthor.

Born an brocht up in Aiberdeenshire, he stairtit wirkin as a jurnalist fur the Aberdeen Journal an the Scottish Farmer at the age o 16.  In 1920 he listit wi the Ryal Air Force, wirkin as a clerk an spendin some time in the Middle Aest.  In 1928 he quat the RAF an stairtit tae write fou-time.  He wrat monie beuks an shorter warks baith unner his rael name an his nom de plume afore his airlie daith in 1935.

Altho no recogneised in the owthor's lifetime, his trilogy A Scots Quair, an in parteicular its first beuk Sunset Song is conseidert tae be amang the definin warks o the 20t century Scots Renaissance.

The leid he wrate in wis Inglis; the dialogue o his chairacters is meant tae be read as Scots, but is written in an Inglis-like kin o wey for tae mak readin mair eith for Inglis readers. For example, Grassic Gibbon wad write braw as brave, an siller as silver.

The Grassic Gibbon Centre wis estaiblisht in Arbuthnott in 1991 for tae commemorate the owthor's life.




#Article 71: Leeteratur (229 words)


Leeteratur is leiterally an acquent wi letters (frae the Latin littera meanin the ae written chairacter (letter)). The term haes maistly come til identifee a collection o texts. The wird leeteratur as a common noon can refer til onie kin o writin, sic as essays; Leeteratur as a proper noon refers til a hail bodie o leiterar wark, global or anent the ae cultur. Monie a time there's confusion on the actual defineition o leeteratur an Leeteratur. The wird leeteratur can be baith singular an plural, juist like Literatur. Sayin that, leeteraturs is plural forby. Houaniver Leeteratur, wi emphasis on uppercase L, is a subset o the mair wide-reengin leeteratur. Leeteratur is uised for onie written wark o byordinar intellectual calibre, whiles leeteratur can be oniething written. Sae, War and Peace bi Tolstoy is Leeteratur (singular) as weel as leeteratur (singular), but Charles Dickens's wark is pairt o Leeteratur (plural) as weel as leeteratur (plural). Mairanower a Harry Potter novel will be thocht on as leeteratur (singular) but nae as Leeteratur (singular) sith maist fowk wadna deem the beuks as intellectual or meaninfu eneuch at an academic level. Likewice the Harry Potter collection bi J. K. Rowling will be thocht on as leeteratur (plural) but nae as Leeteratur (plural). What is intellectual an meaninfu is subjective an aften controversial or dubious, but it daesna interfere wi the defineition abuin.




#Article 72: Paris (256 words)


Paris is the caipital ceety an lairgest ceety o Fraunce. It is situatit on the river Seine, in northren Fraunce, at the hert o the Île-de-France region (or Paris Region, ). The ceety o Paris, athin its admeenistrative limits (the 20 arrondissements) lairgely unchyngit syne 1860, haes an estimatit population o 2,211,297 (Januar 2008), but the Paris metropolitan aurie haes a population o 12,089,098 (Januar 2008), an is ane o the maist populatit metropolitan auries in Europe. Paris wis the lairgest ceety in the Wastren warld for aboot 1,000 year, prior tae the 19t century, an the lairgest in the entire warld atween the 16t an 19t centuries.

Kent warldwide as the Ceity o Licht (la Ville Lumière), Paris haes been a major tourist destination for centuries. The ceity is weel-kent fae the beauty o its airchitectur, its urban perspectives an avenues, an the walth o its museums an aw. Biggit on an airc o the Watter Seine, it is dividit intil twa pairts: the Richt Baunk tae the north and the smawer Left Baunk tae the sooth.

Formerly the caipital o a colonial empire raxin ower five continents, Paris is yit regairdit as the hert o the French-speakin warld an haes hauden a strang international poseetion, hostin the heidquarters o the OECD an the UNESCO amang ithers. This, combined wi its financial, business, poleetical, and tourism acteevities, haes turned Paris intil ane o the major transportation hubs in the warld. New York, Lunnon, Tokyo, an Paris is aften listit as the fower major global ceeties.




#Article 73: Asimov's Science Fiction (398 words)


Asimov's Science Fiction begound its life as the digest-sized Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine (or IASFM fae short) in 1977. Joel Davis o Davis Publications approached the weel-respectit author Isaac Asimov tae lend his name tae a new science feection magazine, efter the fashion o Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine or Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine. Asimov refuiset tae act as editor, an served insteid as editorial director, writin editorials an reponin tae reader mail, till his daith in 1992. Insteid, George H. Scithers wis hiret as the magazine's foremaist editor.

Initially a quarterly, its first issue wis dated Ware 1977. It chynget tae a bimonthly in 1978 an began publishing ilk month in 1979. In the mid-1980s, it became a tetraweekly, publishing ance ilka fower weeks, wi an extrae mid-December issue. Dooble issues wis added in the early 1990s afore the schedule wis scaled back tae the praisent 10 issues per year.

The magazine wis selt tae Bantam Doubleday Dell in Januar 1992, no monie months afore Asimov's daith, an the teetle chynget tae Asimov's Science Fiction. Its paurent company, Dell Magazines, haes chynget haunds several times syne than. In 1998, the magazine's size chynget; it is nou taller an slichtly wider nor the staundard digest format (matching ither magazines furthset bi its newest corporate paurent).
The magazine briefly became a figure o controversy in Februar 2004 whan WoodTV in Gran Rapids, Michigan ran a storie alleging that it wis an adult magazine bein targeted towards childer. A mither haed purchaesed a subscription fae her 13-year auld dochter via a schuil fundraiser (fondhyster) an, efter leukin throu it, decidet that the content wis overtly sexual. The event became a minor cause celebre amang monie Internet sf fans.

George H. Scithers, 1977-1982 
Kathleen Moloney, 1982 (interim) 
Shawna McCarthy, 1983-1985 
Gardner Dozois, 1986-2004 
Sheila Williams, 2004-praisent

Scithers wis an editor wi conservative tastes, an the fiction he furthset wis maistly genre-traditional an unadventurous. His successors' tastes favored fiction reflecting leeteratur influences frae ootwi the genre, an quickly transformed the magazine.
Scithers left the magazine efter five years, winnin twa Hugo awairds as gey editor, an wis succeeded bi Shawna McCarthy. McCarthy held the poseetion fae twa years, winnin ane Hugo awaird.
Gardner Dozois edited the magazine frae 1985 tae 2004, winnin fifteen Hugo awairds, afore stepping doun an acomin its contributing editor. Sheila Williams is the praisent editor o the magazine.




#Article 74: What Not to Wear (UK TV series) (208 words)


What Not to Wear (Whit no tae Weir) is a reality makower televeesion shaw in baith Breetain an the Unitit States.

It stairtit in the UK on BBC Twa syne on BBC Ane; syne it wis braidcast in the US on BBC Americae. An American version gaes oot on TLC. The Breetish version wis aince presentit bi Trinny Woodall an Susannah Constantine but sin the saxt series his bin presentit bi Lisa Butcher an Mica Paris. In the US version the hosts is Stacy London an Clinton Kelly.

Ilka episode featurs a style confrontation an makower o a man or wumman that haes been leetit bi thair feres as bein no parteecularly fashionable. The veectim is gien £2000 in the UK version, ($5000 in the American version) for tae coff new claes. Awtho thay are open tae weir the claes hou thay wiss, thay are leukit ower an coonselt on the weys o fashion bi the shaw's twa hosts. At the end, the bodie confronts thair freends an familie for tae shaw thair new leuk.

A lethal faur-futur version o the shaw kythed in the Doctor Who episode Bad Wolf. Set in the year 200,100, Constantine an Woodall wis the vyces o the killer androids Trinn-E an Zu-Zanna.




#Article 75: Zen gairden (346 words)


A Zen gairden, a Japanese kynd o Karesansui 枯山水 stane gairden, is a shauld saundpit conteenin saund, grush, stanes, whiles girse or ither naitral elements. Thay are uised bi Japanese Zen monks in meditation.

The stane gairden wis addit for tae provide a place for the monks tae meditate an is aften said tae hae a suithin eftercome.

Thare haes been monie attempts tae expone the Zen gairden's layoot. Some o thir are:

It is doutfu that a Zen maister wad gree wi thae claims, houaniver.

A recent sugeestion bi researchers Gert van Tonder o Kyoto Varsity an  o ATR Media Information Labs is that the stanes forms the subleeminal eimage o a tree. This eimage canna be consciously perceived whan leukin at thaim; the researchers claims the subconscious mynd is able tae see a subtle association atween the stanes. Thay believe this is responsible for the suithin eftercome o the gairden.

The rakin o the grush is an experience closely associate wi Zen philosophy, bein the preenciple raison for haein sicna gairden. This is shawn in the executive Zen garden kits that's selt, seemilar tae that shawn abuin, in that a body daesna expect tae mak an keep a perfit gairden as a static object, but raither tae experience the processes o design an maintenance. Whan the raking is duin in a fou size gairden, a body can anerly tread whaur a body haesna yit rakit, an sae this canna be duin thochtless-lik, yit tae dae it weel (an tae win the maist frae it) requires the nae mynd state o mynd, an the koan intrinsic in this fecht gaes tae the hert o Zen.

The conceits o Zen gairden design haes been adaptit tae the makkin o a mair naturalistic plantit laundscape. This can be seen in the eimage ablo, a wee zen gairden that is a pairt o the Japanese Tea Gairden in San Francisco's Gowden Yett Pairk. Nae seen in this view is a wheen whappin boulders tae the left at the strand o the peeble bed inby bi the borderin fulyerie.




#Article 76: Haggis (574 words)


Haggis is a tradeetional Scots dish.  It is a wechtie pudden tradeetionally served wi chappit neeps an tatties.

Altho the'r monie recipes, some uisin deer emmledeug, for ordinar it's makkit wi the follaein ingredients: sheep's hert, liver, an lichts, minced wi ingan, aitmael, shuet, spices, an saut, mixt wi bree an tradeetionally byled in the beast's painch for several hoors. It is amang the maist muckle kinds o sassenger. The'r receipts athoot maet an aa, speceifically for vegetarians, that tastes gey seimilar tae the maet-based receipts.

In some weys, the nor-aestren US dish scrapple is lik haggis, but haggis differs in the follaein weys: it uises sheep emmledeug insteid o swine emmledeug an aitmael insteid o cornmael (maize); it is a sassenger raither nor a maet laif; an it is byled insteid o bein bakkit.  Acause o this, the leuk an the gust differs seegnificant.

Haggis is tradeitionally sert wi the Burns supper on 25t Januar, whan Scotland's naitional poet, Robert Burns, is commemorate. He wrate the poem Address tae a Haggis, stertin Fair fa' your honest, sonsie face, Great chieftain o' the puddin-race! Aboon them a' ye tak your place....  In Burns' lifetime haggis wis a popular dish for the puir, syne it made uiss o pairts o a sheep that wad ithergates hae been wastit.

Haggis is widely available in supermercats in Scotland the hail year aboot, an the cheaper brands is for ordinar stappit intae artifeicial casins, raither nor painches, juist lik the cheaper brands o sassengers isna stappit intae ainimal thairms ony mair. Whiles it is selt in tins, an ye juist microwave it or uin-bak it. Some supermercat haggis is maistlie made frae swine's, raither nor sheep's, emmledeug. Forby, aamaist aa Scots fish an chips shops will sell thair customers a haggis supper, a smaa aesome portion o haggis doukit intae batter an deep fried wi chips; it gies a het, fillin, hie-energy mael for a cauld winter's day.

The'r fast-fuid shops that sells haggis burgers an aa, a patty o fried haggis on a bap. An thare vegetarian an curry variants that been makkit an aw.

Syne monie kintras' fuid saufty laws ootlaws some o the ingredients in haggis (for examplar, Unitit States law forbids the sale o onie ainimal's lichts for human consumption), expatriate Scots an Scots descendants owerseas haes been kent tae engage in haggis smugglin for tae obtein richt Scots haggis.

Haggis is a funny subject for monie fowk. Thaim that speirs at a Scotsman for wittins aboot is rarely gien a straucht anser. A common anser tae the speir Whit is a haggis? aften gaes lik this: A haggis is a smaa fower-leggit Scots Hieland craitur that haes its lims on the tae side shorter nor the tither.  This means that it is weel adaptit tae rinnin aboot the braes at a steady altitude, athoot aither gaun up or doun. Houaniver a haggis can be eith keppit bi rinnin aboot the brae conter gates. (See wild haggis.) Surpreisinly the humorous myth is believed bi monie tourists; syne thay are scunnert tae hear the trowth.

Forby thon haggis is uised in a sport cryed haggis hurlin, thrawin a haggis sae faur as possible.

The Warld Record for Haggis Hurlin haes been hauden bi Alan Pettigrew for mair nor 18 year. He threw a 1 lb 8 oz haggis a stoondin 180 feet 10 inch on the island o Inchmurrin on Loch Lomond in Augist 1984.




#Article 77: Scotch pie (150 words)


A Scotch pie is a dooble-crust pie, oreiginally frae Scotland.

The fillin is minced mutton, aften spiced wi pepper an ither ingredients. Ilka piemakker's preceise receipt, includin the kinds an amoonts o spice uised, is for ordinar keepit gey saicret, for fear o eimitations. It is bakkit in a roond, straucht-sidit tin, aboot 3 1/2in (8 cm) aroond an 1 3/4in (4 cm) heich, wi the tap crust aboot 1/4in (1 cm) laigher nor the rim tae mak room for addin accompaniments sic as chappit tatties, bakkit beans or bree.

Scotch pies is aften sert by tak-awa restaurants, an at ootdoor events sic as fitbaa gemmes.

Ilka year, the Scotch Pie Club hauds the Warld Scotch Pie Championship. Fleshers and baxters enter thair pies intae this competeition, an the makker o the pie juidged maist gustie bi a panel o juidges is awairdit the teitle o Warld Scotch Pie Champion.




#Article 78: Irn-Bru (150 words)


Irn-Bru (pronoonced Airn Brew or Ayron Brew) is the tap kenmark o carbonatit saft drink in Scotland. A.G. Barr plc, o Glesca maks it. Barr's Irn-Bru is selt in the Unitit Kinrick, Republic o Ireland, Roushie, Canadae, Australie, an a puckle ither kintras in Europe. Its adverteesin slogan uisst tae be Makkit in Scotland frae girders, atho the naurest oniebodie can come tae substantiatin this boast is the 0.002% ammonium ferric(III) citrate leetit in the ingredients. It is kent as Scotland's ither naitional drink (referrin tae whisky) an aw. It haes lang been the tap-sellin carbonatit saft drink in Scotland, ootsellin Coca-Cola, but neow steive competeetion atween the twa kenmarks haes brocht thair sales tae rochly seimlar leivels. This steiveness in fendin its hame-mercat (a feat o Irn-Bru, Peru's Inca Kola, an nae ithers) haes led til ongaun jalousin that aither Coke or airch-rivals PepsiCo is like tae coff A.G.Barr.




#Article 79: Harry Potter (439 words)


Harry Potter is a series o fantasy novelles written bi Breetish author J. K. Rowling. The novelles chronicle the life o a young wizard, Harry Potter, an his friends Hermione Granger an Ron Weasley, aw o whom are students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The main story arc concerns Harry's struggle against Lord Voldemort, a dark wizard wha intends tae acome immortal, owerthrow the wizard govrenin bouk kent as the Ministry of Magic, an subjugate aw wizards an Muggles.

Syne the release o the first novelle, Harry Potter an the Philosopher's Stane, on 26 Juin 1997, the beuks hae foond immense popularity, creetical acclaim an commercial success warldwide. Thay hae attracted a wide adult audience as well as younger readers, an are eften considered cornerstones o modren young adult leeteratur. The series haas an aa haed its share o creeticism, includin concern aboot the increasinly dark tone as the series progressed, as well as the eften gruesome an graphic violence it depicts. , the beuks hae sauld mair nor 450 million copies warldwide, makin them the best-sellin beuk series in history, an hae been translatit intae seiventy-three leids. The last fower beuks consecutively set records as the fastest-sellin beuks in history, wi the final instalment sellin roughly eleiven million copies in the Unitit States within twinty-fower oors o its release.

The series wis oreeginally published in Inglis bi twa major publishers, Bloomsbury in the Unitit Kinrick an Scholastic Press in the Unitit States. A play, Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, based on a story bi Rowling, premiered in Lunnon on 30 Julie 2016 at the Palace Theatre, an its script wis published bi Little, Brown as the aicht beuk in the series.

A series o mony genres, includin fantasy, drama, comin o age an the Breetish schuil story (which includes elements o meestery, thriller, adventur, horror an romance), the warld o Harry Potter explores numerous themes an includes mony cultural meanins an references. Accordin tae Rowling, the main theme is daith. Ither major themes in the series include prejudice, corruption, an madness.

The success o the beuks an films haes ensured that the Harry Potter franchise continues tae expand, wi numerous derivative wirks, a travellin exhibeetion that premiered in Chicago in 2009, a studio tour in Lunnon that opened in 2012, a deegital platform on which J.K. Rowling updates the series wi new information an insicht, an a trilogy o spin-off films premiering in November 2016, amang mony ither developments. Maist recently, themed attractions, collectively kent as The Wizarding World of Harry Potter, hae been biggit at several Universal Parks  Resorts amusement parks aroond the warld.




#Article 80: Alfred Kirke Ffrench (136 words)


Alfred Kirke Ffrench wis a recipient o the Victoria Cross, the heichmaist an maist presteegious awaird for gallantry afore the fae that can be awairdit tae Breetish an Commonweel forces.

Ffrench wis twenty-twa year auld, an a Lieutenand in the 53d Regiment o Fit (later The Keeng's Shropshire Licht Infantry) o the Breetish Airmy in throu the Indian Mutiny, whan he performed the deed that he wis awairded the V.R. for.  On 16t November 1857 at Lucknow, Indie, Lieutenand Ffrench wis in chairge o the Grenadier Company, an guide yerselt wi kenspeckle bravery at the taein o the Secundra Bagh. He wis ane o the foremaist tae gang intil the biggin. Efter thon he ris tae the rank o Caiptain.

His Victoria Cross is shawn at The Keeng's Shropshire Licht Infantry Museum in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, Ingland.




#Article 81: Bridie (145 words)


Ae bridie, or Farfar bridie, is ae Scots kin o maet pastry or pie, oreiginallie fae tha toun o Farfar, seimlar tae ae Cornish pastry. It's meakkit o minced beef, whiles wi ingans and spices, stappit intae pastry (aither shortcrust or puff) nickit intae ae hauf-muin shape; the hail thing is bakkit in an uin.

Maggie Bridie o' Glamis inventid the Farfar bridie in Farfarshire in the 19th century. Maggie wis ae fuidsellar wha sauld Farfar Bridies a' the buttermarket a' Farfar.

Whit's in the bridie is indicatit bi the nummer o holes in the tap; juist th' ane hole shaws that the'r nae ingans in the ingredients an twa holes shaws that ingans haes bin uised.

It is the subject o the Dundee shibboleth, Twa plain bridies an an ingan ane an aa, supposedlie impossible tae say gin ye dinnae come fae thit toun. 




#Article 82: Preses o the Scots Pairlament (169 words)


The Preses (, ) is the bodie waled bi the Memmers o the Scots Pairlament tae preside ower thair convenes.  Thay ar the heid o the corporate bodie o the Scots Pairlament an aa, an acause o this thay ar thocht o as a figurheid for the hail organisation.  Twa depute preses is waled tae help fulfil the role.

The memmer waled as Preses is expectit tae gie up thair pairty allegiance for the hail time that thay'r in the cheer. Depute Preses disna gie up votin richts unless thay'r in the cheer at Deceision Time, but the Preses thairsel niver haes votin richts in the Pairlament. Altho haein ane o thair CSPs waled as Preses syne means that thay tyne a vote in the Pairlament, monie o the pairties (includin the smaaer anes) in the Scots Pairlament aye awidlie pit forrit thair ain candidate for the post. 

The first bodie tae haud the poseition wis David Steel, waled in 1999; he wis follaed bi George Reid in 2003.




#Article 83: Arnhem (171 words)


 (Law-Saxon: Ernem) is a ceity in the aest o the Netherlands, an the caipital o the province Gelderland. It haes  aboot 141 600 indwallers (2005), an is ane o the 15 lairgest ceities in the Netherlands.

Arnhem wis grantit ceity-richts in 1233 bi Otto II, coont o Guelders that wis Coont o Zutphen.

In 1850 Arnhem haed aboot 9 000 indwallers, but in the 19t hunneryear Arnhem becam popular wi upper-cless fowk frae the wastren pairt o the Netherlands.

Throu Warld-War II Arnhem wis skaithed sair. In the battle o Arnhem in September 1944 mony Breetish and Polish sodgers wis kilt. Efter the battle o Arnhem wis lost, 95 000 ceetizen were evacuatit, feckly tae the open air museum whaur they bidet in the 19. hunneryear ferms. Efter thay cam back, the ceity wis herried. Mony biggins wis malafousterd. In 1978 the brig ower the watter Rhine wis named efter John Frost, the Breetish heidsman.

Efter the war Arnhem wis upbuilt again. Arnhem is the hindermaist ceity wi a trolley bus.




#Article 84: Barghest (147 words)


Barghest, Bargtjest or Bargest is the name gien in the north o Ingland, speicially in Yorkshire, tae a meethical monstrous boodie-dug wi great muckle teeth an cleuks.

The ghaist-hoond unner sindry names is weel-kent in fowklair:

The barghest wis foremaist a nicht ghaist, an its kythin wis regairdit as a portent o daith. Its Welsh furm is nithert tae the sea-coast pairishes, an on the Norfolk coast the craitur is jaloused tae be ampheebious, comin oot the sea bi nicht an traivellin aboot the lanely loanins. 

The derivation o the wird barghest is threapit ower. Ghaist in the north o Ingland is pronounced guest, an the name is thocht tae be burh-ghest, toun-ghaist. ihers expone it as German Berg-geisl, muntain wirricowe, or Bar-geist, beir-wirricowe, in allusion tae its leged appearance at times as a beir. The barghest haes a kinsman in the Rongeur d'Os o Norman fowklair.




#Article 85: Lafayett Bunnell (118 words)


Lafayette Houghton Bunnell (1824-1903), a noted explorer o Yosemite Valley, wis born in Homer, Minnesota. In 1851, Bunnell wis a member o the Mariposa Battalion that became the non-indigenous discoverers o the Yosemite Valley. Discovery wisna the main purpose o the vaige: the Battalion rode oot in rake o Native American tribal leaders involved in recent raids on American settlements. Bunnell splored the Valley an cried mony o its features. Discovery o the Yosemite, an the Indian Weir o 1851 (1880) contains his accoont o his sploration an the actions o the Battalion.

Dr. Bunnell later served as a surgeon in the Civil Weir.

Bunnell Pynt at the aest end o Little Yosemite Valley is cried efter Bunnell.




#Article 86: Samuel Rutherford Crockett (128 words)


Samuel Rutherford Crockett (24 September 1860 ndash; 16 Aprile 1914) wis a Scots novellist, born at Duchrae, Galloway, the son o a Galloway fermer.

He wis brocht up on a Galloway ferm, an graduated fre Edinburgh Varsity in 1879. Efter some years o traivel he became in 1886 meenister o Penicuik. In that year he produced his first publication, Dulce Cor (), a collection o verse.

He eventually abandoned the Free Kirk ministry for novelle-writin.

The sonse o J.M. Barrie an the Kailyard schuil o writin haed creatit a demand for stories in Scots whan Crockett furthsetit his sonsefu storie o The Stickit Minister in 1893. It wis follaet bi a rapidly produced series o popular novelles frequently featurin the history o Scotland or wi his native Galloway.




#Article 87: Telly (516 words)


Telly () or TV, is a telecommunication medium uised for transmittin muivin eemages in monochrome (black an white), or in colour, an in twa or three dimensions an soond. The term can refer tae a telly itsel, a telly programme (TV shaw), or the medium o transmission for telly. The telly is a mass medium for entertainment, eddication, news, politics, gossip an advertisin.

Telly becam available in crude experimental forms in the late 1920s, but it wad still be several years afore the new technology wis mercatit tae consumers. Efter Warld War II, an impruived form o black-and-white TV braidcastin becam popular in the Unitit States an Breetain, an telly sets becam commonplace in hames, businesses, an institutions. In the 1950s, telly wis the primar medium for influencin public opeenion. In the mid-1960s, colour braidcastin wus introduced in the US an maist ither developit kintras. The availability o multiple teeps o storage media sic as Betamax, VHS tape, local disks, DVDs, flash drives, heich-defineetion Blu-ray Discs, an deegital video recorders hae enabled viewers tae watch prerecordit material—sic as movies— at hame on thair awn time schedule. For mony raisons, the storage o telly an video programmin nou occurs on the clood. At the end o the first decade o the 2000s, deegital televeesion transmissions greatly increased in popularity. Anither development wis the muive frae staundart-defineetion telly (SDTV) (576i, wi 576 interlaced lines o resolution an 480i) tae heich-defineetion televeesion (HDTV), that provides a resolution that is substantially heicher. HDTV mey be transmittit in various formats: 1080p, 1080i an 720p. Syne 2010, wi the invention o smairt television, Internet televeesion haes increased the availability o telly programmes an movies via the Internet throu streamin video services sic as Netflix, Amazon Video, iPlayer, Hulu, Roku an Chromecast.

In 2013, 79% o the warld's hoosehaulds awned a telly set. The replacement o early bouky, heich-voltage cathode ray tube (CRT) screen displays wi compact, energy-efficient, flat-panel alternative technologies sic as plasma displays, LCDs (baith fluorescent-backlit an LED), an OLED displays wis a haurdware revolution that begoud wi computer monitors in the late 1990s. Maist TV sets sauld in the 2000s war flat-panel, mainly LEDs. Major manufacturers annoonced the discontinuation o CRT, DLP, plasma, an even fluorescent-backlit LCDs bi the mid-2010s. An aa, major manufacturers hae announced that thay will increasinly produce smairt TVs in the mid-2010s. Smairt TVs wi integratit Internet an Web 2.0 functions becam the dominant form o telly bi the late 2010s.

Telly seegnals war ineetially distributit anly as terrestrial telly uisin heich-pouered radio-frequency transmitters tae braidcast the seegnal tae individual telly receivers. Alternatively telly seegnals are distributit bi coaxial cable or optical fiber, satellite seestems an, syne the 2000s via the Internet. Till the early 2000s, thir war transmittit as analog seegnals, but a transeetion tae deegital telly is expectit tae be completit warldwide bi the late 2010s. A staundart telly set is componed o multiple internal electronic circuits, includin a tuner for receivin an decodin braidcast seegnals. A veesual display device that lacks a tuner is correctly cried a video monitor raither nor a telly.




#Article 88: Wales (4190 words)


Wales ( ) is a kintra that is pairt o the Unitit Kinrick an the island o Great Breetain. It is mairchit bi Ingland tae the east, the Erse Sea tae the north an wast, an the Bristol Channel tae the sooth. It haed a population in 2011 o 3,063,456 an haes a tot aurie o . Wales haes ower  o coastline an is lairgely moontainous, wi its heicher peaks in the north an central auries, includin Snowdon (), its heichest summit. The kintra lees within the north temperate zone an haes a cheengeable, maritime climate.

Welsh naitional identity kythed amang the Celtic Britons efter the Roman widrawal frae Britain in the 5t century, an Wales is regairdit as ane o the modren Celtic naitions. Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's daith in 1282 merkit the completion o Edward I o Ingland's conquest o Wales, tho Owain Glyndŵr briefly sturkent unthirldom tae Wales in the early 15t century. The hale o Wales wis annexed bi Ingland an incorporate within the Inglis legal seestem unner the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542. Distinctive Welsh politics developit in the 19t century. Welsh Leeberalism, exemplifeed in the early 20t century bi Lloyd George, wis displaced bi the growthe o socialism an the Labour Pairty. Welsh naitional feelin growed ower the century; Plaid Cymru wis formed in 1925 an the Welsh Leid Society in 1962. Established unner the Government o Wales Act 1998, the Naitional Assembly for Wales hauds responsibeelity for a range o .

At the dawn o the Industrial Revolution, development o the minin an metallurgical industries transformed the kintra frae an agricultural society intae an industrial naition; the South Wales Coalfield's exploitation gart a fest waxin o Wales' population. Twa-thirds o the population leeve in sooth Wales, mainly in an aroond Cairdiff (the caipital), Swansea an Newport, an in the naurhaun valleys. Nou that the kintra's tradeetional howkin an hivy industries hae gane or is dwynin, Wales' economy depends on the public sector, licht an service industries an tourism. Wales' 2010 gross vailyie addit (GVA) wis £45.5 billion (£15,145 per heid, 74.0% o the average for the UK, an the lawest GVA per heid in Breetain).

Awtho Wales closely skares its poleetical an social history wi the rest o Great Breetain, an the vast majority o the population speaks Inglis, the kintra haes reteened a distinct cultural identity an is offeecially bilingual. Ower 560,000 Welsh leid speakers leeve in Wales, an the leid is spoken bi a majority o the population in pairts o the north an wast. Frae the late 19t century onwart, Wales acquired its popular eemage as the laund o sang, in pairt due tae the eisteddfod tradeetion. At mony internaitional sportin events, sic as the FIFA Warld Cup, Rugby Warld Cup an the Commonweel Gemmes, Wales haes its awn naitional teams, tho at the Olympic Gemmes, Welsh athletes compete as pairt o a Great Breetain team. Rugby union is seen as a seembol o Welsh identity an an expression o naitional awaurness.

The wirds Wales an Welsh derive frae the same Germanic ruit (singular Walh, plural Walha), that wis itsel derived frae the name o the Celtic tribe kent tae the Romans as Volcae an that cam tae refer haund ower heid tae aw Celts. The modren Welsh name for thairsels is Cymry, an Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales. Thir words (baith o which are pronoonced ) are descendit frae the Brythonic wird combrogi, meanin fellae-kintramen. The uise o the wird Cymry as a sel-designation derives frae the location in the post-Roman Era (efter the arrival o the Anglo-Saxons) o the Welsh (Brythonic-speakin) fowk in modren Wales as well as in northren Ingland an soothren Scotland (Yr Hen Ogledd) (). It emphasised that the Welsh in modren Wales an in the Hen Ogledd war ane fowk, different frae ither fowks.

Accordin tae paleontologists, Wales haes been indwellt bi modren humans for at least 29,000 year. Conteenuous human habitation dates frae the end o the last ice age, atween 12,000 an 10,000 years afore present (BP), whan Mesolithic hunter-gatherers frae central Europe begoud tae migrate tae Great Breetain. Neolithic colonists integratit wi the indigenous fowk, gradually cheengin thair lifestyles frae a nomadic life o huntin an gaitherin, tae acome settled fermers aboot 6,000 BP – the Neolithic Revolution. Thay cleared the forests tae establish pastur an tae cultivate the laund, developit new technologies sic as ceramics an textile production, an biggit cromlechs sic as Pentre Ifan, Bryn Celli Ddu an Parc Cwm long cairn atween aboot 5,800 BP an 5,500 BP. In common wi fowk leevin aw ower Great Breetain, ower the follaein centuries the fowk leevin in whit wis tae acome kent as Wales assimilatit immigrants an excheenged ideas o the Bronze Age an Airn Age Celtic culturs. Bi the time o the Roman invasion o Britain the aurie o modren Wales haed been dividit amang the tribes o the Deceangli, Ordovices, Cornovii, Demetae an Silures for centuries.

The Roman conquest o Wales begoud in AD 48 an teuk 30 year tae complete. Roman rule lastit ower 300 year. The campaigns o conquest are the maist widely kent featur o Wales during the Roman era, acause o the speeritit, but hinderly unsuccessfu, defence o thair hamelands bi twa native tribes: the Silures an the Ordovices. Roman rule in Wales wis a militar occupation, sauf for the soothren coastal region o sooth Wales, east o the Gower Peninsula, whaur thare is a legacy o Romanisation. Awtho Laitin acame the offeecial leid o Wales, the fowk tendit tae conteena tae speak in Brythonic. Forder Roman influence cam throu the spreid o Christianity, that gained mony follaers whan Christians war allaed tae worship freely; state persecution ceased in the 4t century, as a result o Constantine I issuin an edict o toleration in 313.

Early historians, includin the 6t century cleric Gildas, hae notit 383 as a signeeficant pynt in Welsh history, as it is statit in leeteratur as the foondation pynt o several medieval ryal dynasties. In that year the Roman general Magnus Maximus, or Macsen Wledig, strippit aw o wastren an northren Breetain o truips an senior admeenistrators, tae faw tae a sonsie bid for imperial pouer; conteenuin tae rule Breetain frae Gaul as emperor. Gildas, writin in aboot 540, says that Maximus depairtit Britain, takkin wi him aw o its Roman truips, airmed baunds, govrenors an the flouer o its youth, niver tae return. Haein left wi the truips an Roman admeenistrators, an plannin tae conteena as the ruler o Breetain in the futur, his practical coorse wis tae transfer local authority tae local rulers. The earliest Welsh genealogies gie Maximus the role o foondin faither for several ryal dynasties, includin thae o Powys an Gwent. It wis this transfer o pouer that haes gien rise tae the belief that he wis the faither o the Welsh Naition. He is gien as the auncestor o a Welsh king on the Pillar o Eliseg, erectit near 500 year efter he left Breetain, an he feegurs in leets o the Fifteen Tribes o Wales.

The 400-year period follaein the collapse o Roman rule is the maist difficult tae interpret in the history o Wales. Efter the Roman depairtur frae Breetain in AD 410, muckle o the lawlands o Breetain tae the east an sooth-east wis owerrun bi various Germanic fowks. Afore extensive studies o the distribution o R1b Y-DNA subclades, some previously mainteened that native Britons war displaced bi the invaders. This idea haes been discairdit in the face o evidence that muckle o the population haes, at the latest, Hallstatt era oreegins, but probably late Neolithic, or at earliest Mesolithic oreegins wi little contreibution frae Anglo-Saxon soorce auries.
Houiver, bi AD 500, the laund that wad acome Wales haed dividit intae a nummer o kinricks free frae Anglo-Saxon rule. The kinricks o Gwynedd, Powys, Dyfed an Seisyllwg, Morgannwg an Gwent emerged as independent Welsh successor states. In this period, thare wis conflict atween thir states. In 853, the Vikings raidit Anglesey, but in 856, Rhodri Mawr defeatit an killed thair leader, Gorm.

Frae 800 onwart, a series o dynastic mairiages led tae Rhodri Mawr's (r. 844–77) inheritance o Gwynedd an Powys. His sons in turn wad foond three principal dynasties (Aberffraw for Gwynedd, Dinefwr for Deheubarth an Mathrafal for Powys). Rhodri's grandson Hywel Dda (r. 900–50) foondit Deheubarth oot o his maternal an paternal inheritances o Dyfed an Seisyllwg in 930, oustit the Aberffraw dynasty frae Gwynedd an Powys an then codified Welsh law in the 940s. Maredudd ab Owain (r. 986–99) o Deheubarth (Hywel's grandson) wad, (again) temporarily oust the Aberffraw line frae control o Gwynedd an Powys. Maredudd's great-grandson (throu his dauchter Princess Angharad) Gruffydd ap Llywelyn (r. 1039–63) wad conquer his cousins' realms frae his base in Powys, an even extend his authority intae Ingland. Owain Gwynedd (1100–70) o the Aberffraw line wis the first Welsh ruler tae uise the teetle princeps Wallensium (prince o the Welsh), a teetle o substance gien his veectory on the Berwyn Moontains, accordin tae John Davies.

Owain Gwynedd's grandson Llywelyn Fawr (the Great, 1173–1240), wrestit concessions throu the Magna Carta in 1215 an receivin the fealty o ither Welsh lairds in 1216 at the cooncil at Aberdyfi, acame the first Prince o Wales. His grandson Llywelyn ap Gruffudd an aa secured the recogneetion o the title Prince o Wales frae Henry III wi the Treaty o Montgomery in 1267. Later houiver, a succession o disputes, includin the impreesonment o Llywelyn's wife Eleanor, dauchter o Simon de Montfort, culminatit in the first invasion bi Keeng Edward I o Ingland. As a result o militar defeat, the Treaty o Aberconwy exactit Llywelyn's fealty tae Ingland in 1277. Peace wis short leeved an, wi the 1282 Edwardian conquest, the rule o the Welsh princes permanently endit. Wi Llywelyn's daith an his brither prince Dafydd's execution, the few remeenin Welsh lairds did homage for thair launds tae Edward I. Llywelyn's heid wis cairied throu Lunnon on a spear; his baby dauchter Gwenllian wis locked in the priory at Sempringham, whaur she remeened till her daith 54 years later.

Tae help mainteen his dominance, Edward constructit a series o great stane castles: Beaumaris, Caernarfon an Conwy. His son, the futur Keeng Edward II o Ingland, wis born at Edward's new castle at Caernarfon in 1284. He acame the first Inglis Prince o Wales, nae as an infant, but in 1301. Efter the failed revolt in 1294–95 o Madog ap Llywelyn – wha styled himsel Prince o Wales in the Penmachno Document – an the risin o Llywelyn Bren (1316), the next major uprisin wis that led bi Owain Glyndŵr , against Henry IV o Ingland. In 1404, Owain wis reputitly crouned Prince o Wales in the presence o emissaries frae Fraunce, Spain an Scotland. Glyndŵr went on tae haud pairlamentar assemblies at several Welsh touns, includin Machynlleth. But the rebellion failed, an Owain went intae hidin in 1412; peace wis essentially restored in Wales bi 1415. Awtho the Statute o Rhuddlan in 1284 providit the constitutional basis for post-conquest government o the Principality o north Wales frae 1284 till 1536, thare wis na formal Union till 1536. Shortly efterwarts Welsh law, that haed conteena'd tae be uised in Wales efter the Norman conquest, wis fully replaced bi Inglis law, unner whit wad acome kent as the Act o Union.

Prior tae the Breetish Industrial Revolution, that saw a rapid economic expansion atween 1750 an 1850, thare war signs o smaw-scale industries scaitert ootthrou Wales. Thir ranged frae industries connectit tae agricultur, sic as millin an the manufacture o ooen textiles, throu tae minin an quarrelin. Till the Industrial Revolution, Wales haed ayeweys been reliant on its agricultural ootput for its walth an employment an the earliest industrial businesses war smaw scale an localised in manner. In the late 18t century, slate quarrelin begoud tae expand rapidly, maist notably in north Wales. The Penrhyn Quarry, appent in 1770 bi Richard Pennant, wis employin 15,000 men bi the late 19t century, an alang wi Dinorwic Quarry, it dominatit the Welsh slate tred. As the sooth Wales coalfield wis exploitit, mainly in the upland valleys aroond Aberdare an later the Rhondda, the ports o Swansea, Cairdiff an later Penarth, growed intae warld exporters ofcoal an, wi them, cam a population buim.

Historian Kenneth Morgan descrived Wales on the even o the First Warld War as a relatively placid, sel-confident an successfu naition. Ootput frae the coalfields continued tae increase, wi the Rhondda Valley recordin a peak o 9.6 million tons o coal extractit in 1913. The ootbreak o the First Warld War (1914–1918) saw Wales send 272,924 Welshmen in the war, representin 21.5% o the male population. The twa maist notable battles o the War tae include Welsh forces war thae at Mametz Wood on the Somme an the Battle o Passchendaele.

The first quarter o the 20t century an aa saw a shift in the poleetical laundscape o Wales. Syne 1865, the Leeberal Pairty haed held a pairlamentar majority in Wales an, follaein the general election o 1906, anerly ane non-Leeberal Member o Pairlament, Keir Hardie o Merthyr Tydfil, representit a Welsh constituency at Wastmeenster. Yet bi 1906, industrial dissension an poleetical militancy haed began tae unnermine Leeberal consensus in the soothren coalfields. In 1916, David Lloyd George acame the first Welshman tae acome Prime Meenister o Breetain whan he wis made heid o the 1916 coaleetion govrenment. In December 1918, Lloyd George wis re-electit at the heid o a Conservative-dominated coaleetion govrenment, an his puir haundlin o the 1919 coalminers' strike wis a key factor in destroyin support for the Leeberal pairty in sooth Wales. The industrial wirkers o Wales begoud shiftin taewart a new poleetical organisation, established bi Hardie an ithers tae ensur an electit representation for the wirkin cless, that is nou cried the Labour Pairty. Whan in 1908 the Miners' Federation o Great Breetain acame affiliatit tae the Labour Pairty, the fower Labour candidates sponsored bi miners war aw electit as MPs. Bi 1922, hauf o the Welsh seats at Wastmeenster war held bi Labour politeecians—the stairt o a Labour hegemony that wad dominate Wales intae the 21st century.

Efter economic growthe in the first twa decades o the 20t century, Wales' staple industries endured a prolanged slump frae the early 1920s tae the late 1930s, leadin tae widespread unemployment an poverty in the sooth Wales valleys. For the first time in centuries, the population o Wales went intae decline. The Seicont Warld War (1939–1945) saw Welsh servicemen an weemen fecht in aw the major theatres o war, wi some 15,000 o them killed. Bombin raids brocht major loss o life as the German Air Force tairgetit the docks at Swansea, Cairdiff an Pembroke.

The 20t century saw a revival in Welsh naitional feelin. Plaid Cymru wis formed in 1925, seekin greater autonomy or unthirldom frae the rest o the UK. The term Ingland an Wales acame common for descrivin the aurie tae that Inglis law applee'd, an in 1955 Cairdiff wis proclaimed as caipital ceety o Wales. Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg () wis formed in 1962, in response tae lang-held fears that the leid micht suin dee oot. Efter watter projects caused tensions, naitionalist feelins growed. At a bi-election in 1966, Gwynfor Evans wan the pairlamentar seat o Carmarthen, Plaid Cymru's first Pairlamentar seat.

In the first referendum, in 1979, the Welsh electorate votit on the creaution o an assembly for Wales, but thare wis a lairge majority for the na vote. Houiver in 1997 a referendum on the same issue siccared a ay, awtho bi a verra narrae majority. The Naitional Assembly for Wales (Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru) wis set up in 1999 (unner the Govrenment o Wales Act 1998) an haes the pouer tae determine hou the central govrenment budget for Wales is spent an admeenistert, awtho the UK pairlament reserves the richt tae set leemits on the pouers o the Welsh Assembly.

Wales is a kintra that is pairt o the Unitit Kinrick. Constitutionally, the UK is a de jure unitar state, its pairlament an govrenment in Wastmeenster. In the Hoose o Commons – the lawer hoose o the UK govrenment – Wales is representit bi 40 MPs (oot o 650) frae Welsh constituencies. Labour MPs haud 25 o the 40 seats, the Conservatives eleiven, Plaid Cymru three an the Leeberal Democrats haud ane seat.

Referendums held in Wales an Scotland in 1997 chuise tae establish a form o sel-govrenment in baith kintras. In Wales, the consequent process o devolution begoud wi the Govrenment o Wales Act 1998, that creatit the Naitional Assembly for Wales (). Labour remained the lairgest Assembly pairty follaein the 2007 election, winnin 26 o the 60 seats. Haein insufficient support tae form a govrenment, the Labour Pairty entered intae the 'Ane Wales' agreement wi Plaid Cymru, formin a coaleetion, wi the Labour leader as First Meenister. Carwyn Jones haes been First Meenister an leader o Welsh Labour syne Rhodri Morgan retired frae office in December 2009, efter nine year an ten month as First Meenister.

The twinty auries o responsibeelity devolved tae the Welsh Govrenment, kent as subjects, include agricultur, economic development, eddication, heal, hoosin, local govrenment, social services, tourism, transport an the Welsh leid. On its creaution in 1999, the Naitional Assembly for Wales haed na primar legislative pouers.

Wales is an aa a distinct UK electoral region o the European Union representit bi fower Members o the European Pairlament. For the purposes o local govrenment, Wales haes been dividit intae 22 cooncil auries syne 1996. Thir principal auries are responsible for the provision o aw local govrenment services, includin eddication, social wark, environment an roads services.

Wales is a generally moontainous kintra on the wastren side o central soothren Great Breetain. It is aboot  north–sooth an  east–wast. The oft-quotit 'size o Wales' is aboot . Wales is mairchit bi Ingland tae the east an bi sea in aw ither directions: the Erse Sea tae the north an wast, St George's Channel an the Celtic Sea tae the soothwast an the Bristol Channel tae the sooth. Wales haes aboot  o coastline (alang the mean heich watter merk), includin the mainland, Anglesey an Holyhead. Ower 50 islands lee aff the Welsh mainland; the lairgest bein Anglesey, in the north-wast.

Muckle o Wales' diverse laundscape is moontainous, pairticularly in the north an central regions. The moontains war shapit during the last ice age, the Devensian glaciation. The heichest moontains in Wales are in Snowdonia (), o that five are ower . The heichest o thir is Snowdon (), at .

The Seiven Wunners o Wales is a leet in doggerel verse o seiven geographic an cultural laundmerks in Wales probably componed in the late 18t century unner the influence o tourism frae Ingland. Aw the wonders are in north Wales: Snowdon (the heichest moontain), the Gresford bells (the peal o bells in the medieval kirk o All Saints at Gresford), the Llangollen brig (biggit in 1347 ower the River Dee), St Winefride's Well (a pilgrimage steid at Holywell) in Flintshire, the Wrexham () steeple (16t-century touer o St Giles' Church, Wrexham), the Overton yew trees (auncient yew trees in the kirkyaird o St. Mary's at Overton-on-Dee) an Pistyll Rhaeadr – a taw watterfaw, at .

Wales lies within the north temperate zone. It haes a cheengeable, maritime climate an is ane o the weetest kintras in Europe. Welsh wather is eften cloody, weet an windy, wi wairm simmers an mild winters.

Rainfaw patterns shaw signeeficant variation. The forder wast, the heicher the expectit rainfaw; up tae 40% mair. At law elevations, rain is unpredictable at ony time o year, awtho the shouers tend tae be shorter in simmer. The uplands o Wales hae maist rain, normally mair nor 50 days o rain during the winter months (December tae Februar), fawin tae aroond 35 rainy days during the simmer months (Juin tae August).

Ower the last 250 year, Wales haes been transformed first frae a predominantly agricultural kintra tae an industrial, an nou a post-industrial economy. Syne the Seicont Warld War, the service sector haes come tae accoont for the majority o jobs, a featur teepifyin maist advanced economies. Frae the middle o the 19t century till the post-war era, the minin an export o coal wis a dominant industrie. Accordin tae Professor Phil Williams, the Great Depression devastatit Wales, north an sooth, acause o its owerwhelmin dependence on coal an steel.

Acause o puir-quality sile, muckle o Wales is unsuitable for crap-growin an fermstockin fermin haes tradeetionally been the focus o agricultur. The Welsh laundscape (pertectit bi three naitional parks) an 45 Blue Flag saunds, as well as the unique cultur o Wales, attract lairge nummers o tourists, wha play an especially vital role in the economy o rural auries. The poond sterling is the siller uised in Wales.

Soorce: ; Census 2001, 

The population o Wales doobled frae 587,000 in 1801 tae 1,163,000 in 1851 an haed reached 2,421,000 bi 1911. Maist o the increase cam in the coal minin destricts, especially Glamorganshire, which grew frae 71,000 in 1801 tae 232,000 in 1851 an 1,122,000 in 1911. Pairt o this increase can be attributit tae the demografic transeetion seen in maist industrialisin kintras in the Industrial Revolution, as daith rates dropped an birth rates remeened steady. Houever, thare wis an aa lairge-scale migration intae Wales in the Industrial Revolution. The Inglis war the maist numerous group, but thare war an aa conseederable nummers o Erse an smawer nummers o ither ethnic groups, includin Italians, wha migratit tae South Wales. Wales an aa received immigration frae various pairts o the Breetish Commonweel o Naitions in the 20t century, an African-Caribbean an Asian commonties add tae the ethno-cultural mix, pairteecularly in urban Wales. Mony o thir sel-identify as Welsh.

The 2011 census shawed Wales' population tae be 3,063,456, the heichest in its history. In 2011, 27% (837,000) o the tot population o Wales war nae born in Wales, includin 636,000 fowk (21% o the tot population o Wales) wha war born in Ingland. Accordin tae the 2001 census, 96% o the population wis White Breetish, an 2.1% non-white (mainly o Breetish Asian oreegin). Maist non-white groups war concentratit in Cardiff, Newport an Swansea. The tot fertility rate (TFR) in Wales wis 1.90 in 2011, that is ablo the replacement rate o 2.1.

Baith Inglis an Welsh are conseedert offeecial leids o Wales, wi Welsh forder recognised in law as haein offeecial status. Inglis is spoken bi awmaist aw fowk in Wales an is the main leid in maist o the kintra. The lairgest releegion in Wales is Christianity, wi 57.6% o the population descrivin themsels as Christian in the 2011 census. The seicont lairgest attendin faith in Wales is Roman Catholic, wi an estimatit 43,000 adherents. Islam is the lairgest non-Christian releegion in Wales, wi mair nor 24,000 (0.8%) reportit Muslims in the 2011 census.

Wales haes a distinctive cultur includin its awn leid, customs, halidays an muisic.

Wales haes three UNESCO Warld Heritage Steids: The Castles an Toun wals o Keeng Edward I in Gwynedd; Pontcysyllte Aqueduct; an the Blaenavon Industrial Laundscape.

Wales can claim ane o the auldest unbreuken leeterar tradeetions in Europe. The leeterar tradeetion o Wales stretches back tae the saxt century an includes Geoffrey o Monmouth an Gerald o Wales, regairdit bi historian John Davies as amang the finest Laitin authors o the Middle Ages. In 1588 William Morgan acame the first person tae translate the Bible intae Welsh, frae Greek an Ebreu. 1885 saw the publication o Rhys Lewis bi Daniel Owen, creeditit as the first novelle written in the Welsh leid.

Mony warks o Celtic airt hae been foond in Wales. Maist Welsh pented left Wales tae dae thair wirk.

Wales is eften referred tae as the laund o sang, an is notable for its hairpists, male choirs, an solo airtists. Tradeetional instruments o Wales include telyn deires (triple hairp), fiddle, crwth, pibgorn (hornpipe) an ither instruments.

The Banner o Wales incorporates the reid draigon () o Prince Cadwalader alang wi the Tudor colours o green an white. It wis uised bi Henry VII at the Battle o Bosworth in 1485 efter that it wis cairied in state tae St. Paul's Cathedral. The reid draigon wis then includit in the Tudor ryal airms tae signifee thair Welsh strynd. It wis offeecially recognised as the Welsh naitional banner in 1959.

The daffodil an the leek are an aa seembols o Wales. The Prince o Wales' heraldic badge is an aa whiles uised tae seembolise Wales. The badge, kent as the Prince o Wales's feathers, conseests o three white feathers emerging frae a gowd coronet. Hen Wlad fy Nhadau () is the Naitional Anthem o Wales, an is played at events sic as fitbaa or rugby matches involvin the Wales naitional team as weel as the openin o the Welsh Assembly an ither offeecial occasions. In sport, rugby union is seen as a seembol o Welsh identity an an expression o naitional consciousness.




#Article 89: Nijmegen (145 words)


Nijmegen (Zuid-Gelders: Nèhméége; Laich-Saxon: Nimwèèghen; ; ; ) is a ceety in the aest o the Netherlands, an ane o the lairgest ceeties o the stewartry Gelderland. It haes aboot 158 556 indwallers (2006), an is ane o the 10 lairgest ceeties in the Netherlands.

Nijmegen is on the left side o the watter. Waal, a newer pairt o the ceety is on the richt side. Thegither wi Maastricht, Nijmegen is ane o the auldest ceeties in the Netherlands. Aircheological findins shaws that Nijmegen wis awreadies a govrenmental centre in the year AD 17.

Nijmegen wis grantit ceety-richts in 1230 bi Henry VII that wis emperor o Roum.

Throu Warld War II Nijmegen wis skaithed sair. In parteecular acause o bombin bi Americans on 22 Februar 1944 maist o the ceety wis malafoustert, an 800 fowk wis kilt.

Nijmegen is weel-kent for the Nijmegen Vierdaagse.




#Article 90: Supreme Court o Chile (211 words)


The Supreme Coort o Chile is the heichest coort in Chile. It administrates the laicher coorts in the naition forby. 

In the Chilean seestem, the coort wants the braider pouer o judeecial scowth—it canna set bindin precedent or invalidate laws. Insteid, it acts on a case-bi-case basis. 

Trials is cairied oot in salas, chaumers o at laist five juidges, moderate bi the maist senior member.

The members o the Supreme Coort is appyntit bi the Presses o Chile, but maun be waled frae a leet o five chyces that is redd bi the sittin members o the coort. Twa o thaim waled maun be senior juidges frae appellate coorts; the ither three needna hae ony judicial experience. The preses's chyce maun syne be ratifee'd bi the senate. Supreme Coort juistices maun be at laist 36 year auld. Thay ser for life an canna be remuived cep for inappropriate ongauns.

The Supreme Coort haes twintie-ane members, cried ministros. Ae member is waled tae ser a three-year term as Preses o the Supreme Coort.
 
Rraisent Supreme Coort members:

The Chilean Supreme Coort haes been inrowed in monie important human richts cases adae wi the umwhile Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet.

The Chilean Supreme Coort haes makkit important deceesions in the area o gay richts.




#Article 91: Wertheim am Main (117 words)


Wertheim is a toun in soothwastern Germany, in the state o Baden-Württemberg wi 24,764 indwallers. It is situate on the confluence o the rivers Tauber an Main.

It is weel-kent for its wine, castle an medieval up-toun.

For monie years Wertheim wis hame tae Peden Barracks, a US Airmie installation.  Heidquartered at Peden Barracks wis the 72t Field Artillery Brigade an twa Field Artillery Battalions - 3/35FA (8 inch sel-propellt) an 4/27 FA (MLRS).  The US Airmie left Peden Barracks in the early 1990s as pairt o the post Cauld Weir reorganisation o the US airmed forces in Germany.

Events: Simmer festival on the last three days o Julie, follaed bi a medieval festival on the castle.




#Article 92: Jules Verne (crater) (233 words)


Jules Verne is a lairge lunnar crater on the far side o the Muin. It is locatit tae the wast-soothwast o the Mare Ingenii, ane o the few lunnar mares on the hyne awa. Tae the soothaest o Jules Verne is the Lundmark crater, whilk Koch crater is locatit tae the sooth-soothaest. Tae the northwast is the lairge Pavlov wawed-plain.

Maist o the interior fluir o this crater haes been flooded wi basaltic-lava, leavin a daurk, laich albedo surface that is relatively level an flat. It is somewhat unco for a crater featur on the far side tae be flooded wi lava, as the crust is generally thicker than on the naur side. Houaniver this crater is locatit entirely inouth the Sooth Pole-Aitken bossie.

The ooter rim o Jules Verne is worn an eroded, wi several craters laying athort the laggin. Alang the aestern laggin lies 'Jules Verne G', whilk 'Jules Verne C' penetrates the nor-aestern rim an 'Jules Verne Z' cuts across the northren rim. A smaa crater forbye lies athort the soothern rim, whilk 'Jules Verne P' is attached tae the exterior alang the sooth-soothwast.

Jules Verne is ane o the few lunnar craters that is kent bi a chiel's full name raither than juist the surname. It is forbye cried for a science fiction owthor, raither than a namely scientist or  as is teepical. (But see H. G. Wells crater.)




#Article 93: Laissez-faire (133 words)


Laissez-faire is short for, laissez-faire, laissez-passer, a French phrase meanin idiomatically leave tae dae, leave tae pass or mair accurate lat things abee, lat thaim pass. First uised bi the aichteent century Physiocrats as an injunction agin govrenment interficherin wi tred an troke, it is nou uised as a synonym for strict free mercat economics. Laissez-faire economic policy is in direct contrast tae statist economic policy. Adam Smith played a lairge role in popularizin laissez-faire economic theories in Inglis-speakin kintras, thou he wis tuithie o a nummer o aspects o whit is currently thocht o as laissez-faire (sic as want o govrenment regulation o business practices).

Laissez-faire (imperative) is distinct frae laisser faire (infinitive) that refers tae a careless attitude in the application o a policy, impleein a want o conseederation, or thocht.




#Article 94: Glattalp (163 words)


The Glattalp lies in a Glen abuin Bisisthal in the Swiss Canton in the community o Muotathal.

Frae Sahli traivel tae the Glattalp bi cable caur, thare ye wad find yersel at ower 1850 m.ü.M., an naur the Glattalpsee. Thare ye will find a pouerstation kent as the Elektrizitätswerke des Reegion Switz Canton.

Aground the byous Layers in the Glen are the Temperatur, in the Winter, at plainer sicht gey laich. Temperaturs unner minus 30 Grad are kyndly (A dinna ken whit leid that's mynt tae be!). 

The Laichest Temperatur Recordit in Swisserland wis setten on Februar 7t 1991 an meisured -52.5 °C. The wather fowk at MeteoSwitz (SMA) disna recogneeze this Record acause it coudna be confirmed, the Glattalp bein uninhabitatit. La Brévine is aye still offeecialy the cauldest pynt o Swisserland at -41.8 °C on 12 Januar 1987.

In ware the Glattalp is a weel-likit destination, on accoont o its floridity. Young horse is hauden thare in the simmer an aw.




#Article 95: St Pauls, Bristol (125 words)


St Pauls is a destrict o Bristol, Ingland on the ootskirts o the ceity mids. St Pauls is famously kent ootthrou the UK as a aurie o heich wrang-daein (drog dealin an prostitiution). It is the mids o the ceity's African an Jamaican commonties, monie o whilk are secoint generation.

Architectur in St Pauls is Georgian-styled biggins an the destrict haes monie quaders.

In throu the sweltrie simmer o 1981, tensions stairtit tae rise at the inequality faced bi the black youth in the area, an riots soon brake oot, an wis anerly quelled bi police uisin tear gas sprayed intil the clamjamfrie.

St Pauls is the hame tae a smaa but thrivin hip hop scene, whaur onybodie can find monie breakdancers an rap crews.




#Article 96: Filton (283 words)


Filton is a toun in Sooth Gloucestershire, Ingland, on the northren ootskirts o Bristol. Filton is fund on junction 1 o the M32 motorwey an junction 16 o the M5 motorwey. It haes a smaa Railwey Station an aw, no far frae Pairkwey. It is twinned wi St Vallier-sur-Rhône, Fraunce an Witzenhausen, Germany. The local fitbaw (soccer) team is cried St Vallier FC efter it's French twin.

Filton is merkit as a centre o the aerospace industry, wi BAE Seestems, Airbus an Rolls-Royce haein factories locatit roond aboot Filton Aerodrome, a connection that gangs back tae the early days o the Bristol Aeroplane Company. On 26t November 2003, Concorde 216 (G-BOAF) makkit the final iver Concorde flicht, returnin tae Filton for tae be hauden thare permanent as the centrepiece o a projectit air museum. This museum will include the exeestin Bristol Aero Collection that is for the nou hauden in a hangar at Kemble Airfield, fowertie mile frae Filton. This collection includes a Bristol Britannia aircraft that micht aiblins be brocht tae Bristol an aw. Ither companies an organisations sic as the MOD, Viridor, Hewlett Packard an Ryal Mail haes a presence in Filton an aw.

Filton haes a reenge o eddicational faceelities, includin Filton College, Filton Hie Schuil an several primary schuils. The Varsity o the Wast o Ingland is at naurby Frenchay.

Filton haes twa main shoppin auries - the Shield Centre an Abbey Wid Retail Pairk, as weel as monie local shops. Tae the aest o the toun thare is a smaa aurie o widland kent as Splatt's Abbey Wid, wi an interestin history. Forby thon thare is a lairge gowf coorse locatit at Filton that belangs Filton Gowf Club.




#Article 97: Horfield, Bristol (148 words)


Horfield is a suburb o the ceity o Bristol, in soothwast Ingland. It lies on Bristol's northern edge, its border wi Filton merkin pairt o the mairch atween Bristol an Sooth Gloucestershire. Historically, the area haed a wird for bein a lawless place acause Horfield Wid wis the haunt o thieves an gangrels. Monie o the aulder hooses in Horfield hae recently been riven down in favour o lairge new hoosin estates.

Horfield is hame tae the Memorial Hainin: a sports stadium biggit in 1921 for Bristol Rugby Club in mynd o the rugby union players o the ceity who dee'd in Warld Weir I, an rededicated tae commemorate the deid o Warld Weir II. In 1996, the hainins forbye became hame tae Bristol Rovers Football Club.

The area's maist famous son is Hollywood actor Cary Grant, who wis born at 15 Hughenden Road in Horfield, in 1904.




#Article 98: Bristol (148 words)


Bristol is an Inglis ceity an coonty an ane o the twa admeenistrative centres o Sooth Wast Ingland (the ither bein Plymouth). Frae its earliest days, its sonse haes been linkit tae that o the Port o Bristol, the commercial port that origeenatit in the ceity centre, but that haes nou flittit tae the Bristol Lade coast. Bristol raxes tae this coast an includes Avonmouth, whaur maist o the current port is situate. Kenspeckle airts in an aboot the ceity includes Clifton, Filton an Patchwey. (Thir last twa airts is ootwi the praisent ceity mairch, in Sooth Gloucestershire.)

Bristol is Ingland's aicht, an the Unitit Kinrick's elievent, maist populous ceity. As sic, it is ane o Ingland's kern ceities. It haed been, for hauf a century, the seicont lairgest Inglis ceity efter Lunnon, till the swith rise o Liverpool, Manchester an Birmingham, at he hindend o the 1780s.




#Article 99: John Maclean (Scots socialist) (874 words)


John Maclean (1879-1923) wis born in Glesgae, Scotland intae a faimily o Hieland oreegin frae the Isle o Mull.  Maclean becam a dominie an syne gaed tae the Varsity o Glesgae, graduatin wi a Maister o Airts degree (Maclean aye uised MA efter his name whan bein setten furth efterhaund).  Maclean is seen as ane o the chief feegurs o the Reid Clydeside era.

Maclean becam convinced that the staundart o livin o the warkin-clesses coud be made better throu the uptak o Marxist thocht juist, an he jynt the Social Democratic Federation (SDF), an bydit in the organisation as it formed the Breitish Socialist Pairty.  Bi the time o Warld Weir I his socialism wis o a revolutionary mak, altho he wrocht wi ithers on the left that's socialism wisna, sic as his freend James Maxton.  He strangly opponed the weir acause he felt it wis a weir o imperialism that sheddit warkers ane frae the ither.

His poleitics made him weel kent tae the authorities o the time, an in 1915 he wis seckit frae his teachin post.  Acause o this, he becam a fou-time Marxist lecturer an organiser, eddicatin ither Glaswegian warkers in Marxist theory.  He later foondit the Scots Labour College, wi branches aw oer Scotland.

He wis involved a wee bit wi the Land League in Lewis an Harris during the 1910s.

In Warld Weir I he wis yauld in anti-weir groups an wis pitten in the jyle for his ettles in 1916, anerlie bein lowsed efter left-wing demonstrations follaein the Roushian Revolution in Februar 1917.

Maclean wis made Soviet Consul in Scotland bi Lenin as a gratification for his revolutionary socialist ettles, an a fervent Bolshevik representin person 

Acause he wis a revolutionary enemy o whit he saw as an imperialist weir MacLean steively opponed the staunce taen bi the heid-anes o the BSP aboot H. M. Hyndman. Houaniver, he wisna a pairt o the new leadership that replaced Hyndman in 1916.

Acause the BSP wis the chief constituent organisation that merged intae the new-formit Communist Pairty of Great Breitain, MacLean wis alienate frae the new pairty maugre o his uphaudin o the Communist Internaitional. It seems that he micht hae becom a member o the Socialist Labour Pairty at this time for a while. Houaniver this wis aucht tae his growin belief that warkers in Scotland coud gang in a revolutionary airt quicker nor thair comrades in England an Wales.

It wis roond aboot this time that Maclean, influeenced bi Embra-born Irishman James Connolly, becam mair naitionalist in thocht an he eventually formed the Scots Warkers Republican Pairty that pit Communism an a belief in Scots unthirldom thegither. The man wis advocateen true Scots unthirldom at a time fan the SNP an thair antecedent perties war maistly faffin aboot wi ideas lit Home Rule.

Whan Maclean dee'd, his halth brucken bi years o the jyle, several thoosand fowk lined the streets o Glesgae tae see his funeral procession gae bi, sic the extent o his repute bi the time o his daith.

He left a legacy that haes efterhaund been claimed baith bi the Scots Naitionalist an Labour muvements, makkin him aamaist aesome in this respect amang Scotland's historical feigurs.  The modren Scots Socialist Pairty lay strang claim tae Maclean's poleitical legacy, in parteicular the Scots Republican Socialist Muvement (a faction athin the SSP).

On 15t Apryle 1918, Maclean wis arreisted far sedition. He wis refused bail an his trial fixit for 9 Mey in Edinburgh. He conductit his ain defence in a defiant manner, refusin tae plead an when askit if he objectit tae ony o the juror's replyin, A object tae the whole lot o thaim. The prosecution case wis based on the testimony o witnesses wha haed attendit his meetins, wha quotit extraicts frae oot his speeches uisin notes thay haed written up frae memory efter the meetin. Maclean objected tae his wirds bein taken oot o context, sayin. The main pairts o me speech, in whilk me themes are developit are omittit. A want tae expose the trickery o the Breitish goviernment an their police an their lawyers.

Maclean addressit the jury (in Inglis) in an impassioned speech lastin 75 meenutes, ane o the greitest Marxist anti-capitalist attacks:

A wish nae hairm tae ony human bein, bat A, as ane man, am gaun tae exercise me freedom o speech. Nae human bein on the face o the Yird, nae goviernment is gaun tae tak frae me ma richt tae exprime, ma richt tae protest agains wrang, my right tae dae everything that is far the benefit o Mankind. A am nae here, then, as the accusit; A am here as the accuser o capitalism drippin wi bluid frae heid tae fit.

He wis sentencit tae five years o penal servitude, an imprisonit in Peterhead prison near Aiberdeen. Houaniver, a militant campaign wis launched for he be free again.

Efter the airmistice on 11 November, he wis releasit on 3 December 1918, returnin tae Glesga, a lot o warkers bein joyful o his liberation.

The weel-kent Erse-American folk group The Clancy Brothers an Tommy Makem read an pronoonce the Speech frae the Docks in a video ye can watch on Youtube: 

(Aw in Inglis)




#Article 100: Freedom Come Aa Ye (198 words)


Freedom Come Aa Ye is a Scots sang componed bi Hamish Henderson in 1960. It is set tae the muisic o 'The Bloody Fields of Flanders'.

It is whiles proponed as a naitional sang for Scotland, maistlins bi fowk wi a inklin tae socialism (alang wi Robert Burns' 'A Man's A Man'). The sang is obviously socialist, mentionin John Maclean an appealin for unity o the warld's wirkin fowk agin weir (the mak o the 'Internationale').

Hamish Henderson componed it as a sang agin Apartheid, an it was takken up as a merchin sang bi the anti-Polaris merchers in the 1960s.  Awbeit the muisic is grundit on The Bloody Fields of Flanders bi John McLellan Dunoon, it isna haley the same, an is unco knacketie. Maist o the lines hae sax beats, but the seicont line o ilka fower has seiven, makkin twinty-five awthegither in ilka fowersome.  Whan ye're merchin, this odd nummer maks ye stairt aff the seicont hauf o the verse on th' ithir fit.  This gies the seicont hauf o the verse a lift, an is jist the dab fur markin time an whilin awa the oors on a lang merch.

(pit tae the RRSSC) 




#Article 101: Sigmund Freud (190 words)


Sigmund Freud (6 Mey 1856 – 23 September 1939) wis an Austrian Jewish psychotherapist an the foonder o the psychoanalytic schuil o psychotherapy a group that popularised the theory that unconscious motives taks chairge the feck o behaviour. He becam interestit in hypnotism an whit wey it coud be uised for tae holp the mentally ill. Later on he drappit hypnotism in favour o free association an dream analysis in developin the traitment nou kent as the talking cure. Thir elements becam the kernel o psychoanalysis. Freud wis byordinar interestit in hysteria as it wis cried at thon time—it is cried conversion syndrome the nou.

Freud's theories, an his traitment o patients, wis controversial in 19t century Vienna, an is steively debatit yet. Freud's conceits is aften talked ower an analeesed as warks o leeteratur, philosophy, an general cultur ower an abuin the ongaun debate anent them as scienteefic an medical traitises. The name Freud is maistlins pronoonced Froid in Inglis an Froit in German. He wis the faunder o psychoanalysis. Freud write The Interpretation of Dreams an Three Essays on The Theory of Sexuality. He died in Lunnon, Ingland.




#Article 102: Galileo Galilei (141 words)


Galileo Galilei (Pisa, 15 Februar 1564 – Arcetri, 8 Januar 1642) wis a Tuscan astronomer, philosopher, an pheesicist that is closely associate wi the scienteefic revolution. He haed a haund in the betterment o the prospect, a variety o astronomical observations, the first , an in supportin Copernicanism effectively. He haes been cried the faither o modren astronomie, the faither o modren pheesics, an the faither of science. His experimental wark is aften conseedered complementary tae the scrievins o Francis Bacon in stablishin the modren scienteefic method. Galileo's life coincided wi that o Johannes Kepler. The wark o Galileo is conseedered tae be a signeeficant brak frae that o Aristotle. Forby, his conflict wi the Roman Catholic Kirk is taen as a great aerly exemplar o the conflict o authority an freedom o thocht, in parteecular wi science, in Wastren society.




#Article 103: Johann Gutenberg (135 words)


Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (circa 1398 – 3 Februar, 1468), a German metal-warker an inventor that's weel-kent for his contreibutions ti the technology o prentin in the 1450s, sic as a type metal alloy an ile-based inks, a mould for castin type accurate, an a new kind o prentin press foondit on presses uised in wine-makkin. Tradeition credits him wi inventin muivable type in Europe, a betterment o the block prentin uised there afore. By jyning thir elements intil a production seistem, he stairtit the swith prentin o written materials an an information explosion in Renaissance Europe.

There's monie statues o Gutenberg in Germany, ane o the mair kenspeckle bein a wark bi Thorvaldsen, in Mainz, that is hame tae the Gutenberg Museum forby.

The Gutenberg Galaxy an Project Gutenberg commemorates Gutenberg's name.




#Article 104: Christiaan Huygens (291 words)


Christiaan Huygens (pronoonced in Scots (IPA): ; in Dutch: ) (14 April 1629 – 8 Julie 1695), wis a Dutch mathematician an pheesicist; born in The Hague as the son o Constantijn Huygens. He studied law at the Varsity o Leiden an the College o Orange in Breda afore turnin ti science. It is a guid thing he did, as historians associate Huygens wi the scientific revolution.

Christiaan gets a bit credit for his role in the development o modren calculus. He got note forbye for his arguments that light conseisted o waves; see: wave-particle duality. In 1655, he discovert Saturn's muin Titan. He examined Saturn's planetary rings an aa, an in 1656 he discovert that thae rings conseisted o stanes. In that verra year he observit the Orion Nebula. Uisin his modren telescope he succeeded in resolvin the nebula intil different starns. (The brichter insides o the Orion Nebula bears the name o the Huygens Region in his honour.) He discovert several interstellar nebulae an some double stars an aa.

Aifter Blaise Pascal encouraged him ti dae sae, Huygens wrat the first beuk on probability theory, that he haed furthset in 1657.

He worked on the makkin o accurate clocks, suitable for naval navigation, forbye. In 1658 he furthset a beuk on this topic cried Horologium. Atweill his invention, the Pendulum clock (patented 1656), wis a brakthrou in timekeepin.

The Royal Society made Huygens a member in 1663. In the year 1666 Huygens flitted ti Paris whaur he held a chair at the French Ryal Society. Uisin the Paris Observatory (completit in 1672) he mad further astronomical observations.

Huygens flittit back ti The Hague in 1681 aifter sufferin serious illness an dee'd thare 14 years later on 8 Julie, 1695.




#Article 105: Aguecheek: My Unknown Chum (159 words)


Aguecheek, later wi the addit unnerteitle o My Unknown Chum (1912 edeetion wi innin bi Henry Garrity) is an antique beuk aboot a carle's vaige frae Americae, mebbe the ceity Boston, tae Lunnon, Roum, Paris an ither smawer touns.

It isna kent wha scrieved the beuk, but thare is spectulation. Monie fowk believes that Charles B. Fairbanks is the author, but the forewirdist disna believe this. 

He says in the forewird that Charles B. Fairbanks is the repute author, but writ shaws that he dee'd in 1859, whan aw but thirtie-twa year auld - an eild the text repeatitly discredits.

The beuk is currently in prent, but nae aften stockit in beuk shops. Ye can coff it frae monie places sic as Amazon.co.uk or its US cuisin.

The furthsettin hoose is cried Kessinger Publishing Company (A dinna ken whither or no the new edeetion haes Henry Garrity's innin). For the aulder copy, the furthsettin hoose is the Devin-Adair Company.




#Article 106: Twin Peends (104 words)


The Twin Peends are blate-sized munts approximately 100 fit heich, an tae the soothwast o the Maurs Pathfinder's laundin steid. Thay are juist ower a mile awa an can be seen frae orbeit.

The Maurs Pathfinder laundin steid is at the mooth o Ares Vallis, a lairge ootflowe lade 930 mile lang that tuimt frae the maurtian hielands intil the Chryse Bossie. Vast fluidwatters, sib tae thaim that cairved Ma'adim Vallis, jawed ower this steid several billion year syne. The roondit stanes in the foregrund micht hae been transportit an eroded throu thir fluids. Twin Peends micht hae been eroded bi thir fluidwatters forby.




#Article 107: Maurs (117 words)


Maurs (or Mairs) is the fowert planet frae the Sun in the Solar system. It is cried efter Maurs, the god o weir in Roman mythology (the coonterpairt til Ares, the god o weir in Greek mythology) acause o its reid licht as seen in the heivens at nicht. This featur forby wan it the name o the Reid Planet. Maurs haes twa muins (Phobos an Deimos) baith smaa an orra-shapit, like eneuch bein fangit asteroids. The prefix areo- refers ti Maurs.

Maurs haes been in fiction for mony a year gin only as the stance the invaders cam frae. Stories that taks place on Maurs haes slawly becam mair faur ben ndash; includin Bradbury's Maurtian chronicles.




#Article 108: Sun (464 words)


The Sun is the starn at the centre o the Solar Seestem. It is a geynear perfect sphere o het plasma, wi internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process. It is bi faur the maist important soorce o energy for life on Yird. Its diameter is aboot 1.39 million kilometres, i.e. 109 times that o Yird, an its mass is aboot 330,000 times that o Yird, accoontin for aboot 99.86% o the tot mass o the Solar Seestem.
Aboot three quarters o the Sun's mass conseests o hydrogen (~73%); the rest is maistly helium (~25%), wi muckle smawer quantities o hivier elements, includin oxygen, caurbon, neon, an airn.

The Sun is a G-teep main-sequence starn (G2V) based on its spectral cless. As sic, it is informally an nae completely accurately referred tae as a yellae dwarf (its licht is closer tae white nor yellae). It formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago frae the gravitational collapse o maiter within a region o a lairge molecular clood. Maist o this maiter gaithered in the centre, whauras the rest flattened intae an orbitin disk that becam the Solar Seestem. The central mass becam sae het an dense that it eventually ineetiatit nuclear fusion in its core. It is thocht that awmaist aw starms form bi this process.

The Sun is aboot middle-aged; it haes nae chynged dramatically for mir than fower billion years, an will remeen fairly stable for mair nor anither five billion year. It currently fuzes aboot 544 million tonnes o hydrogen intae helium ivery seicont, converting 3.6 million tonnes o maiter into energy ivery seicont as a result. This energy, that can take atween 10,000 an 170,000 year tae escape frae its core, is the soorce o the Sun's licht an heat. In aboot 5 billion year, whan hydrogen fusion in its core haes dimeenished tae the point at which the Sun is na langer in hydrostatic equilibrium, the core o the Sun will experience a merkit increase in density an temperatur while its ooter layers expand tae eventually acome a red giant. It is calculatit that the Sun will acome sufficiently lairge tae engulf the current orbits o Mercury an Venus, an render Yird uninhabitable. Efter this, it will shed its ooter layers an acome a dense teep o cuilin starn kent as a white dwarf, that na langer produces energy bi fusion, but still glowes an gies aff heat frae its previous fusion.

The enormous effect o the Sun on Yird haes been recognised syne prehistoric times, an the Sun haes been regairdit bi some culturs as a deity. The synodic rotation o Yird an its orbit aroond the Sun are the basis o solar calendars, ane o which is the predominant calendar in uise the day.




#Article 109: Ma'adim Vallis (127 words)


Ma'adim Vallis is ane o the lairgest canyons on Maurs, aboot 434 mile lang an a guid bit mair muckle not the Yirds's Grand Canyon. It is ower 12 mile braid an 1.24 mile deep in some places. It rins frae a region o soothren lawlands thocht tae hae ance conteent a lairge group o lochs north tae Gusev Crater naur the equator.

Ma'adim Vallis is thocht tae hae been cairved bi flowin watter early in Maurs' historie. A puckle o the short nairae lades alang the waws o Ma'adim is aiblins sappin lades. Sappin occurs whan grundwatter pairtially dissolves an unnermines the stane that syne collapses intil debris deposits an is haigelt awa bi ither erosion processes.

Ma'adim is the Hebrew name o the Planet Maurs.




#Article 110: Edward Jenner (294 words)


Edward Jenner (17 Mey, 1749 - 26 Januar, 1823) wis an Inglis physeecian wirkin in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, weel-kent for his wark bringin on the Smawpox vaccine.

In Jenner's time, the smawpox inoculation wis duin aa ower England. Houaniver, it haed twa muckle drawbacks: it wis dangerous, an afore the infection frae inoculation haed run its coorse, the subject wis smitten, an infectious, wi the rael smawpox. Sae thay war a risk til onie faimlie or freends that wisna yet immune.

Thare wis a local fowk tradeition amang them that milkit kye, that an infection wi the 'coupox' protectit a bodie frae gettin the smawpox. (It haes been theorised that the romantic eimage o the bonny milkmaid cam frae the fact that milkmaids aften gat the coupox, an wad aifter that be immune ti the disfeegurment o the smawpox.)

The coupox is relate ti the smawpox an Jenner jaloused that gin the fowk tradeition wis richt it wad be better nor the smawpox for inoculation. On 14 May, 1796, he tried oot the coupox, smittin an aicht year auld loun cried James Phipps in the same wey uised for smawpox inoculation, but uisin material frae a coupox pustule. The loun gat the coupox, an aifter sax weeks, recovert saufly. Jenner than applee'd the staundart smawpox inoculation; the loun wisna smitten at aw, shawin that the coupox haed made him immune tae the smawpox.he visted st giles junior schuil 1757.

Jenner cried his gate vaccination, sin the oreiginal infective material cam frae a cou (vacca is the Latin for cou). His wark wis published as An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae, a Disease Known by the Name of Cow Pox in 1798. The wird virus wis first uised in that beuk.




#Article 111: Johannes Kepler (107 words)


Johannes Kepler (27 December, 1571 – 15 November, 1630), a kenspeckle chiel in the scientific revolution, wis a German astronomer, mathematician an astrologer. He is best kent for his laws o planetary motion, pit furth in the twa beuks Astronomia nova an Harmonices Mundi.

Kepler wis a professor o mathematics at the Varsity o Graz, court mathemateician ti Emperor Rudolf II, an coort astrologer ti General Wallenstein. Aerlie in his career, Kepler wis an asseistant ti Tycho Brahe. Kepler's career wis at the same time as Galileo Galilei's ane.

He is whiles cried the faremaist theoretical astropheesicist, atho Carl Sagan cried him the hindmaist scienteific astrologer forbye.




#Article 112: Wikimedia Commons (489 words)


The Wikimedia Commons (cried Commons or Wikicommons an aa) is a store o free content eimages, soond an ither multimedia files. It is a projeck o the Wikimedia Foondation. Files uploaded ti this store can be uised lik locally uploaded files on aa ither projecks on the Wikimedia servers, lik Wikipedia, Wikibooks an Wikinews.

The project wis proponed in Mairch 2004 an launched on 7 September, 2004. An important raeson for the setup o a central store wis a wish ti lessen duplication o effort ower the Wikimedia projecks an leids, sin the same file haed ti be uploaded ti monie different wikis ane bi ane afore the Commons wis creatit.

The possibility o local uploads exists yet, but shoud be uised maistlins for material that local project policies permit, but that wadna be permitted bi the licensin policy o the Commons, sic as fair uise content. As o 2005, the Wikimedia Commons itsel daesna allou fair uise or uploads unner non-free licences, sic as licenses that restrick commercial uise o materials. Licences that are aaricht are them lik the GNU Free Documentation License or Creative Commons licences wi nae restricks on uise, as weel as the public domain.

Gien its main function as a supportin projeck for the ither Wikimedia wab steids, the main content policy for files uploaded ti the Commons is that thay maun can be uissfu on onie o the Wikimedia projecks. This daesna mean material sic as richt personal picturs an airtwark, in contrast ti eimage sharin stores lik Flickr an DeviantART. Nanetheless, grat nummers o files hosted on the Commons arena uised direckly on onie Wikimedia projeck an likely nivver will be; sae the projeck haes grown intil a store o multimedia in its ain richt, that is aften airted til frae airticles on Wikipedia an ither Wikimedia wabsteids ti gie supplemental materials.

The project haes grown gey quickly syne its birth. On 24 May, 2005, it raxed a milestane o 100,000 uploaded media files (ootwi thoosands o wather an mercat data eimages for Wikinews). It wis the first Wikimedia projeck til uise MediaWiki 1.4 an aa. The defaut leid for the Commons is Inglis, but the interface can be configured (in uiser preferences) til uise onie ither leid. Some pages hae been owerset intil ither leids an aa.

Files on the Wikimedia Commons are categorised uising MediaWiki's category seistem. Mairanower, thay are aften collected on individual topical gallery pages. As o May 2005, monie different collections can be isolated: mair nor 10,000 public domain pentins frae auncient ti modren times, 7,733 pronunciation files in a hantle leids, hunders o public domain recordins o classical muisic, an a growin collection o short videos.

Atho the projeck wis oreiginally proponed ti haud free text files an aa, thir files are yet hosted on anither projeck, Wikisource.

The Wikimedia Commons haes received an honourable mention at the 2005 Prix Ars Electronica awairds in May 2005..




#Article 113: Adirondack (289 words)


Adirondack is the tae-name for Maurs Sploration Rinaboot Speerit's first target stane. Scientists chuist Adirondack tae be Speerit's first target stane raither than anither stane, cried Sashimi, that wad hae been a shorter, straucht-aheid drive. Speerit stravaiged the saundy maurtian terrain at Gusev Crater tae arrive in front o this fitbaw-sized stane on Januar 18, 2004, juist three days efter it successfully rowen aff the launder.

The stane wis selectit as Spirit's first target acause its dist-free, flet surface is ideally suitit for grindin. Clean surfaces forbye are better for examinin a stane's top coatin. Scientists cried the angular stane efter the Adirondack Ben reenge in New York.

The name Adirondacks comes fae the Mohawk ratirontaks, meanin they eat trees, a name that the Mohawk gied tae the Algonquian-spikkin tribes o the Adirondack Mountains; whan there wisnae much fuid, the Algonquians wad eat the buds an bark o trees. 

Speerit's Mössbauer spectrometer detected a meeneral cried olivine, whilk disnae survive weathering weel. The lack o weatherin suggested bi the presence o olivine micht be evidence that the scaup stymes are finely ground volcanic material. Anither possible explanation is that the scaup layer whaur the measurements wis taen is extremely thin, an the olivine is actually in a stane unner the scaup. Speerit haes forbye retourned microscopic images an Mössbauer spectrometer readins o Adirondack taen the day afore the rinaboot developed computer an communication problems on Januar 22, 2004. Baith are wanprecedentit investigations o ony stane on anither planet. The microscopic images indicate Adirondack is a haurd, crystalline stane. The peends lairge an smaa in Adirondack's electromagnetic spectrum reveal that the meenerals in the stane include olivine, pyroxene an magnetite - a common composeetion in volcanic basalt stanes on Earth.




#Article 114: Socialism (314 words)


Socialism is the name gien tae sindrie poleitical ideas. Socialists believes in evenlyness, solidarity, an social juistice. Monie fowk haes unalike conceits anent whit socialism means. Monie socialists thinks the guvrenment or the state shuid be aucht the commandin hichts o industry. Ithers thinks that warkers shuid be aucht the industries that thay wirk in. The'r ithers that says that the ettle shoud be that fowk shuid be mair equal, but this shoud be gotten unner a reformed capitalism.

Some fowk says that an Inglisman, Robert Owen, wis the first socialist. He sayed that warkers shoud be aucht the companies that thay wrocht tae. The warkers wad than divvie up the ootcome amang thairsels.

Monie socialist poleitical pairties wis creatit in the 19t century an the early pairt o the 20t century.

The maist weel-kent socialist is Karl Marx, that scrieved The Communist Manifesto.

Socialism an communism is sib ane tae the ither, but no the same thing. Nouadays, socialism is a gey wide-rangin term, while communism in ordiner spaek aamaist aye refers juist tae the ideologies o the Marxist-Leninist pairties o the communist bloc.

Efter Warld Weir Ane, the faa o the Saicont International an the Roushian Revolution, socialism wis splitten intae twa tradeitions. Some socialists follaed Lenin an wis cryed Communists. Ithers believed in a pairlamentary gate tae socialism an wis cawed social democrats. Social democrats disagreed gey strangly wi Communists; afttimes thay entered intae guvrenments in thair naitions, cryed bourgeois guvrenments bi the socialists, an stertit tae rule ower capitalist kintras.

Monie social democrats haes nou quat e'en thair auld idea o reformin capitalism, an rins capitalist guvernments aa roond the warld.

Monie fowk that nou cries thairsels socialists is opponed tae baith capitalism, an the seestem o the auld Soviet Union that thay see (specially efter the rise o Joseph Stalin) as a betrayal o the principles o democratic socialism.




#Article 115: European Union (780 words)


The European Union (EU) is a group o 27 memmer states that are locatit primarily in Europe. The Union wis pitten thegither fir cultural an economic ettils. Monie kintras in the Union bruiks the same siller, the euro.

The EU traces its origins frae the European Coal an Steel Community (ECSC) an the European Economic Community (EEC), formed bi the Inner Sax kintras in 1951 and 1958, respectively. In the intervenin years the commonty an its successors hae grown in size bi the accession o new member states an in pouer bi the addeetion o policy auries tae its remit. The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union unner its current name in 1993. The latest major amendment tae the constitutional basis o the EU, the Treaty o Lisbon, came intae force in 2009.

The EU haes developed a single market throu a standardised seestem o laws that apply in aw member states. Within the Schengen Aurie (which includes 22 EU an 4 non-EU states) passport controls hae been abolished. EU policies aim tae ensur the free movement o fowk, guids, services, an caipital, enact legislation in juistice an home affairs, an maintain common policies on trade, agricultur, fisheries, an regional development.

The monetary union wis established in 1999 and came intae full force in 2002. Hit is currently componed o 18 member states that uise the euro as thair legal tender. Throu the Common Foreign an Security Policy the EU haes developed a role in freemit relations an defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the warld an represents itself at the Unitit Naitions, the WTO, the G8, an the G-20.

The EU is considered bi mony tae be a potential superpouer. Wi a combined population o ower 500 million indwallers, or 7.3% o the warld population, the EU in 2012 generatit a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) o 16.584 trillion US dollars, constitutin approximately 23% o global nominal GDP an 20% when measured in terms o purchasin pouer parity, which is the lairgest nominal GDP an GDP PPP in the warld. The EU wis the recipient o the 2012 Nobel Peace Prize.

Memmers o the EU:

Yeir o ingang: 1)1958 (founders), 2)1973, 3)1981, 4)1986, 5)1995, 6)2004, 7)2007, 8)2013.

Croatie wul lyk jyn the EU in 2009, North Macedonie wis makkit a candidate kintra in 2006, an Turkey haes been a canidate kintra in 1999 altho thay didna corrieneuch till 2005.

As o 31st o January 2020 the Uniteet Kinrik isnae longer pairt o the European Union.

The syn in the ingang o the European Pairliament biggin in Brussels is written in the 20 offeecial leids bruikit in the European Union as o Julie 2006.
The offeicial leids o the European Union, as stipulatit in the amendit EEC Council: Regulation Nummer 1 determinin the leids ti be bruikit bi the European Economic Communitie o 1958-04-15, ar: 

No aw naitional offeicial leids haes bin grantit the status o offeicial leids o the EU. Luxembourgish, an offeecial leid o Luxembourg syn 1984, haesna. Nor haes Turkis, an offeecial leid o Cyprus.

Thar's monie mair leids that 's recognised bi the EU (in fak its the , a different organization) as Regional an Minority Leids. Thir includes the Scots leid an the Scots Gaelic leid as regional leids.

The creation o a European single siller acame an offeecial objective o the European Economic Community in 1969. Houiver, it wis anly wi the advent o the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 that member states wur legally boond tae stairt the monetary union no later nor 1 Januar 1999. On this date the euro wis duly launched bi eleven o the then 15 member states o the EU. It remained an accoontin currency till 1 Januar 2002, when euro notes an coins wur issued an naitional currencies began tae phase oot in the eurozone, which bi then consisted o 12 member states. The eurozone (constituted bi the EU member states which hae adoptit the euro) haes syne grown tae 18 kintras, the maist recent bein Latvie which jyned on 1 Januar 2014.

Aw ither EU member states, except Denmark are legally boond tae jyn the euro when the convergence criteria are met, houiver anly a few kintras hae set target dates fir accession. Swaden haes circumventit the requirement tae jyn the euro bi nae meetin the membership criteria.

A bodie thit is critical o the European Union mey be callit a Eurosceptic. Sic fowk mey oppone membership ootricht (hard Euroscepticism), or juist be critical o wee aspects o the bloc (soft Euroscepticism). Euroscepticism in the Unitit Kinrick is maistlins hard, an can be seen bi the rise o the UK Independence Party (UKIP) an Brexit.




#Article 116: Anton Raphael Mengs (408 words)


Anton Raphael Mengs (22 Mairch 1728 - 29 Juin 1779) wis a German penter.

Mengs wis born in 1728 at Usti (Aussig) in Bohemia, but his faither, Ismael Mengs, a Dens penter, estaiblisht hissel finally at Dresden, whance in 1741 he teuk his son tae Rome. The appyntment o Mengs in 1749 as first penter tae Frederick Augustus, elector o Saxony didna hinder his spendin muckle time in Rame, whaur he haed mairiet on Margarita Quazzi that haed sat for him as a model in 1748, an abjured the Protestant faith, an whaur he became in 1754 guider o the Vatican schuil o pentin, nor did this hinder him on twa occasions frae obeyin the hoy o Charles III o Spain tae Madrid. Thare Mengs produced some o his best wark, an specially the ceil o the banqueting-haw, its subject bein the Triumph o Trajan an the Temple o Glore.  Efter the completion o this wark in 1777, Mengs gaed back tae Rame, an thare he dee'd, twa year efter, in puirtith, lea'in twintie bairns, o thaim sieven wis pensioned bi the keeng o Spain.

Asides mony pentins in the Madrid gallery, the Ascension an St Joseph at Dresden, Perseus an Andromeda at Saunt Petersburg, an the ceil o the Villa Albani maun be mentiont amang his chief warks. As o 1911, Henry George Percy, 7t Duke o Northumberland, possessed a Haly Faimilie, an the colleges o Aw Sauls an Magdalen, at Oxford, possessed altar-pieces bi Mengs's haund.

In his writins, in the Spanish, Italian an German leids, Mengs haes pitten furth his eclectic theorie o airt, that treats perfection as attainable bi a weel-schemed combination o diverse excellences Greek design, wi the expression o Raphael, the chiaroscuro o Correggio, an the licht o Titian. His intimacy wi Johann Joachim Winckelmann that wrate constant tae his dictation haes enhanced his historical importance, for he furmed nae scholars, an the creetic maunna concur in Goethe's juidgment o Mengs in Winckelmann und sein Jahrhundert; he maun deplore that sae muckle lair shuid hae been allied tae a total want o ineetiative an want o invention, an embodied wi a strained an airtifeecial mainerism.

See Opere di Antonio Raffaello Mengs (Parma, 1780); Mengs Werke, übersetzt v. G. F. Prange (1786); Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst (1880); Bianconi, Elogio storico di Mengs (Milan, 1780); Woermann, Ismael und Raphael Mengs (Leipzig, 1893).

[This entry is foondit on an airticle frae the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.]




#Article 117: Ecologie (117 words)


Ecologie, or ecological science, is the scienteific study o the deistribution an rowth o leivin organisms an the wey that thir properties is affectit bi interactions atween the organisms an thair environs. The environs o an organism includes baith the pheesical properties, them that can be descrieved as the soum o local abiotic factors like climate an geologie, as weel as the ither organisms that shares its habitat. The wird oekologie wis cleckit in 1866 bi the German biologist, Ernst Haeckel, frae the Greek oikos meanin hoosehauld an logos meanin study; that is, the study o the hoosehauld o naitur.
biology is as well the study of the human body or focile this is known as geology




#Article 118: Airt (132 words)


Airt, in its braidmaist meanin, is the kythe o creativity or imaigination, else baith.

Aa thro the scrievit historie o man, monie biggins haes been applee'd upan the braid conceit. The maist feck kens the things that thay conseider ti be airt, an the things that thay conseider nae ti be airt. Forby, pairties, maistlins academic pairties, haes a vague skairit conceit o the things that is, or isna, airt.

The wird airt is aften uised for the veesual airts, an airts is uised for veesual airt, leeteratur, muisic, an dance — the fine airts. Hooiver, sic disteenctions bes the subject o monie collogues an debates.

Airt kythes tae be nearhaun universal aa thro man — necessar ti man's trift. Thare's nae culturs nor daen tak side in it tae some degree. 




#Article 119: Dance (149 words)


Dance (frae auld French danser, faurder history isna kent) for ordinar refers tae human muivement aither uised as a furm o expression or presentit in a social, speeritual or performance settin.

Dance is uised tae descrive methods o nane-verbal communication atween humans or ainimals an aw (bee dance, matein dance), motion in inanimate objects (the leafs danced in the wind), an certaint muisical furms or genres. Fowk that dances is cawed dancers an the act o dance is kent as dancin. An event whaur dancin taks place micht be cawed a dance. Choreographie is the airt o makkin dances.

Defineetions o whit constitutes dance lippens on social, cultural, aesthetic airteestic an moral constraints an reenges frae functional muivement (sic as Folk dance) tae codifee'd, virtuoso techniques sic as ballet. In sports, gymnastics, feegur skeitchin an synchronized soumin conteens dance disciplines while Martial airts 'Kata' is aften compeared wi dances.




#Article 120: James Clerk Maxwell (241 words)


James Clerk Maxwell (13 Juin 1831 – 5 November 1879) wis a Scots pheesicist, born in Edinburgh. Maxwell developit a set o equations expressin the basic laws o eletric an magnetism as weel as the Maxwell distribution in the kinetic theory o gases. He wis the last member o a cadet brainch o the weel-kent Scots faimlie o Clerk o Penicuik.

Maxwell is aften thocht o as the scientist o the 1800s that haed the maist influence on the pheesics o the 1900s, makkin contreibutions ti the basic models o naitur. In 1931, on the centennial anniversar o Maxwell's birth, Einstein descrieved Maxwell's wark as the most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton.

Algebraic mathematics wi elements o geometry is a featur o a great deal o o Maxwell's wark. Maxwell shawed that eletric an magnetic forces is twa complementar aspecks o eletromagnetism. He shawed that eletric an magnetic fields traivels throu space, in the form o waves, at a steady velocity o 3.0 × 108 m/s. He proponed forby that licht wis a form o eletromagnetic radiation.

The scienteific compound derived CGS unit meisurin magnetic flux (aften shortent til f), the maxwell (Mx), is named in his honour. A reenge o muntains on Venus, Maxwell Montes, is named efter him, as weel as the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope, the lairgest sub-mm astronomical prospect in the warld, wi a diameter o 15 metres.




#Article 121: First Meenister o Scotland (378 words)


The First Meenister o Scotland (, ) is the heid o the Scots Govrenment. The post wis estaiblisht in 1999 alangside the Scots Pairlament an the praisent First Meenister is Nicola Sturgeon, she haes haudit the post syne 2014.

The First Meenister is chuised bi a vote o the Scots Pairlament an than appyntit bi the ringin Monarch o the Unitit Kinrik.

The first body tae haud the poseetion o First Meenister wis Donald Dewar, aften cried the Faither o the Naition, or forbie the faither o devolved govrenment. Whan he wis Secretar o State for Scotland, Dewar's acts an wirks wis instrumental in gettin the referrendum that led tae devolution in Scotland. He haudit the office he helpit tae create for a short time til it endit sudden-like whan he dee'd o a brain haemorrhage in 2000.

Henry McLeish teuk his place; he serred in the poseetion for a gey short time, haen tae demit efter a scaundal anent his finances while a Wastmeenster CP. McLeish denee'd ony wrangdaein, claimin it wis a muddle, rather than a fiddle, but muckle pressure wis brocht tae bear on him an he felt he haed nae chyce ither nor demittin; he did in 2001.

McLeish's job wis taen ower bi Jack McConnell, wha haed stuiden unsuccessfu agin McLeish for heidship o the Scots Labour Pairty. This made McConnell First Meenister fae then till 2007. McConnell said his kin of chiefship wad be chairacterised bi the Scots Executive ettlin tae do less, but do it better.

Alex Salmond wis First Meenister fae 2007 tae 2014 as the heid o a coalition government atween the Scots National Pairty (SNP) an the Scots Greens in a minorite govrenment. In 2012 he led the SNP tae become the first pairty tae win a majority o seats in the Scots Pairlament, this wis also the year whan the Scots Executive wis renemmed tae the Scots Govrenment. In 2014 Nicola Sturgeon teuk ower as heid o the SNP and First Meenister an wis reelectit in 2017.

The First Meenister is Keeper o the Great Seal o Scotland, an thair place in the order o precedence in Scotland is determinit bi that office.

Bute House in Embro's Charlotte Square is the offeecial hame o the First Meenister.




#Article 122: Depute First Meenister o Scotland (195 words)


The Depute First Meenister o Scotland (Scots Gaelic: Leas-Phrìomh Mhinistear) is the Depute tae the First Meenister o Scotland. The post is hauden bi John Swinney the nou.

The post isna recogneesed in statute (as agin the post o First Meenister, estaiblisht bi the Scotland Act 1998), an its hauder is juist an ordinar member o the Scots Executive, but the post haes existit in practice syne the estaiblishment o the Scots Pairlament an Scots Executive in 1999.  

The Addeetional Member Seestem uised for tae wale Memmers o the Scots Pairlament maks it haurd for an aesome pairty tae hae an absolute majority. Frae 1999 tae 2007 the Scots Executive wis pitten thegither bi a Labour an Leeberal Democrat coalition. The First Meenister wis appyntit frae the majority coalition pairtner (Labour) an the Depute First Meenister frae the minority pairtner (Leeberal Democrats).

Syne 2007, the Scots Executive haes been a Scots National Pairty minority administration; the First Meenister Alex Salmond appyntit the depute convenor o the SNP, Nicola Sturgeon, as Depute First Meenister.

While the first First Meenister, Donald Dewar, wis seek, the Depute First Meenister Jim Wallace teuk ower the rinnin o the Executive.




#Article 123: Scots Pairlament election, 2003 (165 words)


The saicont Scots Pairlament walin wis hauden on Mey 1, 2003.  The ootcome wis charactereised bi the heeze in support for the Scots Greens an the Scots Socialist Pairty — baith pairties ootwi the big fower — an a dwyne in support for baith the Scots Labour Pairty an the Scots National Pairty (SNP).  Mauger predeictions o a foonder in thair support, the Tories' vote haudit up weel an thay managed tae wun three constituencies, as agin nane in the bygane walin.

Unthirlt MSP, Dennis Canavan wis jyned bi twa ither unthirlt members, Margo MacDonald an Jean Turner.  Scots Senior Ceitizens Unity Pairty chief John Swinburne wis waled an aa.

Tho the dwyne in support for the SNP wis seen bi some as a rejection o the case for Unthirldom, the nummer of MSPs for unthirldom waled actually rose syne baith the Greens an Scots Socialists support Scots unthirldom.

Tot o votes cuisten - 1,891,335

Tot o votes cuisten - 1,915,856

Total turnoot - 49.4%




#Article 124: Addeetional Member Seestem (999 words)


The Addeitional Member Seestem (AMS) is a votin seestem whaur some representatives is waled frae geographic constituencies an ithers is waled bi proportional representation frae pairty leets. The constituency representatives is for normal waled unner the first-past-the-post votin seestem. The pairty leet representatives is waled bi a saicont vote, whaur the electors vote for a political pairty, no directly for onie ae chiel. This pairty vote determines the nummer o representatives that the pairty haes in the assembly. The parteicular individuals waled comes frae leets drawn up bi the political pairties afore the walin, at a naitional or regional level.

Variations o the AMS haes unalike weys o determinin hou monie pairty leet representatives ilka pairty is enteitelt tae. The chief differ atween seestems is whither the constituency representatives is coontit whan leet representatives is allocate tae ilka pairty. 

Parallel votin is the mair common variation amang votin seestems o the warld, but MMP is the seestem descreived here. Smaa pairties will for ordinar wun mair saets unner MMP nor SUP.

The AMS is uised tae wale members tae sindry representative bodies aroond the warld.

It wad hae been uised for the proponed Regional Assemblies in England an aa.

AMS is uised forbye in Bolivia, Italy (laicher hoose, syne 1994), Lesotho, Mexico and Venezuela.

Hungary haes a complicate votin seestem that ends up wi a less proportional representation nor AMS but mair proportional nor parallel votin.

In 1976, the Hansard Society recommendit that the Addeitional Member Seestem shuid be uised for UK pairlamentary walins, but insteid o uisin closed pairty leets, it propones that saets shuid be filled bi defeatit candidates, on a 'best losser' basis. 
A seimilar seestem wis proponed bi the Unthirlt Commission in 1999, kent as Alternative Vote Plus (AV+). This wad involve the uise o the Alternative Vote for walin members frae ae-member constituencies, an regional pairty leets. Houaniver, contrair tae the Labour Pairty's aerlier manifesto promises, the wisna a referendum afore the 2001 walin and the statement wisna repeatit.

The voter casts twa votes: ane for a constituency representative an ane for a pairty. In a lesser-uised variant, uised bi some of the sindry Länder in Germany, baith votes is combined intae wan, sae that votin for a representative autaematically means votin for thair pairty an aa.

In ilka constituency, the representative is chuist uisin first-past-the-post (that is, the candidate wi the maist votes, bi plurality, wuns).  

On the district or naitional level (i.e. abuin the constituency level),  the hail nummer o saets in the assembly is allocate tae pairties proportional tae the nummer o votes the pairty got in the pairty portion o the ballot.  The nummer of constituency saets a pairty wan is subtractit frae its allocation.  The nummer o saets bydin allocate tae that pairty is filled uisin the pairty's leet.  If a candidate is on the pairty leet, but wuns a constituency saet, thay dinna get twa saets; insteid, thay are delete frae the pairty leet an replaced wi the neist candidate doun.

Acause a pairty can gain less saets bi the pairty vote nor thay need tae justifee the constituency saets thay wan, owerhang saets can come aboot. The'r different wey o dealin wi owerhang saets. In the Scots Pairlament the nummer o owerhang saets is taen frae the nummer o proportional saets o the ither pairties, in Germany's Bundestag an the New Zealand Hoose o Representatives the owerhang saets bydes. In some seestems the ither pairties receive mair saets tae restore proportionality.

For tae be eligible for leet saets in the New Zealand an German, a pairty maun either earn at laest 5% o the hail pairty vote or wun at laest ane constituency saet (three constituency saets in Germany). If nane o the twa condeitions is met, the pairty isna representit. Haein a member wi a 'sauf' constituency saet is syne a grand asset tae a minor pairty in sic a seestem.

In terms o tactical votin, the first vote for the district representative is aften muckle less important (nor the saicont pairty leet vote) in determinin the oweraa ootcome o a walin; in ither cases a pairty micht be sae siccar that it'll wun saets in the district walin that it expects nae mair saets in the proportional tap-up.  Some voters micht syne ettle tae get dooble representation bi votin tactically an splittin thair votes, tho this rins the risk o unintendit eftercomes.

In seestems wi a thrashel, tactical votin for a minor pairty that's predictit tae be juist ablo the thrashel is relatively common, specially bi voters that's feart that the minor pairty missin the thrashel wad weaken the lairger political camp that the minor party belangs. For exemplar, the German moderate-richt Free Democratic Pairty (FDP) haes aften received votes frae voters that wad liefer the lairger Christian Democratic Union (CDU) pairty, acause thay fear that gin the FDP received less nor five percent o the votes, the conservative camp wad be sic weakened that the CDU cuidna form a guvrenment.

Political pairties can abuise the seestem: in the 2001 Italian walins, the twa chief coalitions (the Hoose o Freedoms an the Olive Tree) linkit monie o thair constituency candidates tae wyle-leets (liste civetta) in the proportional pairts, uner the names Abolizione Scorporo an Paese Nuovo respectively, sae that gin thay wun constituencies than thay wadna reduce the nummer o proportional saets received bi the coalitions. Atween thaim, the twa wyle-leets wan 360 o the 475 constituency saets, mair nor hauf o the 630 tot o saets, mauger wunnin a tot aathegither o less nor 0.2% o the naitional proportional pairt o the vote.  In the case o Forza Italia (pairt o the Hoose o Freedoms), the tactic wis that successfu that it didna hae eneuch candidates in the proportional pairt tae receive as monie saets as it in fact wan, missin oot on 12 saets.

Wyle-leets isna uised in maist kintras uisin AMS, whaur maist voters vote for candidates frae pairties wi lang-staundin names.




#Article 125: Whisky (499 words)


Whisky (or whiskey) is an alcoholic drink distillt frae grain, aften includin maut, that haes than been aged in widden baurrels.

The spellin whisky (plural whiskies) is for ordinar uised for thaim that's distillt in Scotland, Canadae, an Japan, while whiskey (wi an e; plural whiskeys) is uised for the speirits distillt in Ireland an the Unitit States; houaniver, the'r exceptions. Internaitional law resers the term Scotch whisky for thae whiskies that's produced in Scotland; whiskies produced in ither kintras in the Scotch wey maun uise anither name. Seimilar conventions exists for Irish whiskey,  Canadian whisky, an Bourbon whiskey.

The Welsh version is wysgi. The name is derived frae Gaelic uisge beatha (watter o life).  (Ither kintras haes thair ain watter o life forbye: for exemplar Scandinavie Akvavit, that's name comes frae the Laitin aqua vitae.)

Irish whiskey is for ordinar distillt three times frae melderin. Scots whisky, richt cryed Scotch, is for normal distilt twice, aither frae baurley maut its lane (see single maut whisky), or frae baurley mauts an ither grain mauts that's than mixt thegither. Kentucky whiskey, cryed Bourbon, is for ordinar juist distillt the aince, lik maist ither American an Canadian whiskies.

Whisky is drunken straucht, wi watter or ice, or mixt wi ither speirits or drinks (lik Scotch  Coke, Scotch  Ginger or Scotch  Irn Bru).

Whisky is selt in monie styles. Maut whisky conseists o whisky made frae 100 percent mautit grain, an maut whisky frae ae distillery, raither nor blendit, is cryed single maut. The grains uised tae mak maut whisky includes baurley in Ireland, Scotland, Canadae, an the Unitit States, an rye in Canadae an the Unitit States. Pure pot still whiskey is made in Ireland frae a mixtur o mautit an wanmautit baurley. Sindry types o straucht whiskey, sic as rye whiskey, Tennessee whiskey, an Bourbon whiskey is produced in the US that's aged in new, charred, aik baurels. Blendit whisky is made frae a mixtur o monie o the abuin whiskies wi the seimilar grain whisky or neutral grain speirits, that's faur less expensive tae produce nor the ither kinds o whisky.  Blends will aamaist aye identifee the kin o base whisky uised, i.e. blendit Scotch, blendit Canadian, or blendit Bourbon.  Licht whiskey is a kin o American whiskey made up aamaist hailie o neutral grain speirits, wi smaa amoonts (for ordinar nae mair nor 5–10 percent o the hail volume) o straucht whiskey an sherry eikit for flavor an colourin.

In time syne, maist o the whiskey produced in the US wis Bottelt-in-Bond accordin tae the dictates o an 1898 Act o Congress; this practice haes been maistlins discontinued, acause ane o the requirements o the Act wis that sicna whiskey shuid be produced at 100 US alcoholic pruif (50% alcohol bi volume).  Nae muckle whiskey this potent is produced in the US oniemair, partially acause o chyngin public gusts but forbye acause an alcoholic content that heich is illegal in monie kintras, leimitin the export mercat for it.




#Article 126: Joe-1 (112 words)


Joe Ane (or Joe-1; USSR version RDS-1 (Reaktivnyi Dvigatel Specialnyi; Special Jet Ingine)) wis the wastern name for the first Soviet atomic bomb Sey, on Augist 29, 1949 at Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan. The yield wis 22 kilotons. At Lavrenty Beria's insistence, the device wis a mair or less copy o the Unitit States Gadget/Fat Man design. It wis cried First Lichtnin bi the Soviets.

Its virr wis rochly equivalent tae aboot 20 kilotons o TNT, sib tae the American wappen drappit on Nagasaki, Japan. Its development wis years aheid o American militar-intelligence projections an came as a conflummix tae the Wast.

The American codename wis in remit tae Joseph Stalin, the Soviet leader.




#Article 127: Japan (589 words)


Japan ( Nippon  or Nihon ; formally   or Nihon-koku, meanin State o Japan) is a sovereign island naition in Eastren Asie. Locatit in the Paceefic Ocean, it lies off the eastren coast o the Asie Mainland (east o Cheenae, Korea, Roushie) an stretches frae the Sea o Okhotsk in the north tae the East Cheenae Sea an Taiwan in the soothwast.

The kanji that mak up Japan's name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni an means sun while 本 can be read as  hon, or pon an means origin. Japan is eften referred tae in the Wast bi the famous epithet Laund o the Risin Sun in reference tae its Japanese name.

Japan is a stratovolcanic airchipelago conseestin o aboot 6,852 islands. The fower lairgest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu an Shikoku, which mak up aboot ninety-seiven percent o Japan's laund aurie an eften are referred tae as hame islands. The kintra is dividit intae 47 prefecturs in aicht regions. Hokkaido bein the northrenmost prefectur an Okinawa bein the soothernmaist ane. The population o 127 million is the warld's tent lairgest. Japanese fowk mak up 98.5% o Japan's tot population. Approximately 9.1 million fowk live in the core ceety o Tokyo, the caipital o Japan.

Airchaeological resairch indicates that Japan wis inhaibitit as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention o Japan is in Cheenese history texts frae the 1st century AD. Influence frae ither regions, mainly Cheenae, follaed bi periods o isolation, pairteecularly frae Wastren Europe, haes chairacterised Japan's history. Frae the 12t century till 1868, Japan wis ruled bi successive feudal militar shoguns wha ruled in the name o the Emperor.

Japan entered intae a lang period o isolation in the early 17t century, which wis endit in 1853 when a Unitit States fleet pressured Japan tae open tae the Wast. Efter nearly twa decades o internal conflict an insurrection, the Imperial Coort regained its poleetical pouer in 1868 throu the help o several clans frae Chōshū an Satsuma, an the Empire o Japan wis established. In the late 19t an early 20t centuries, victories in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War an Warld War I allaed Japan tae expand its empire during a period o increasin militarism.

The Seicont Sino-Japanese War o 1937 expandit intae pairt o World War II in 1941, which came tae an end in 1945 follaein the atomic bombins o Hiroshima an Nagasaki an the Japanese surrender. Syne adoptin its revised constitution on Mey 3, 1947 during the occupation bi the SCAP, Japan haes maintained a unitar pairlamentary constitutional monarchy wi an Emperor an an electit legislatur cried the Naitional Diet.

Japan is a member o the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, an the G20 an is conseedert a great pouer. The kintra haes the warld's third-lairgest economy bi nominal GDP an the warld's foerrth-lairgest economy bi purchasin pouer parity. It is an aa the waarld's fowert-lairgest exporter an fowert-lairgest importer. The kintra benefits frae a heichly skilled wirkforce an is amang the maist heichly eddicatit kintras in the warld, wi ane o the heichest percentages o its ceetizens hauldin a tertiary eddication degree.

Awtho Japan haes offeecially renoonced its richt tae declare war, it mainteens a modren militar wi the warld's aicht-lairgest militar budget, uised for sel-defence an peacekeepin roles. Japan is a developit kintra wi a very heich staundart o livin an Human Development Index. Its population enjoys the heichest life expectancy an the third lawest infant mortality rate in the warld.




#Article 128: Stickney (crater) (112 words)


Stickney crater is the lairgest crater on Phobos, whilk is a muin o Maurs. It is aboot 10 km in diameter.

It is thocht that the dunt whilk creatit Stickney wis sae snar that it naurly brak Phobos asinder. Radiatin chacks can be seen aboot Stickney.

The crater is cried efter Chloe Angeline Stickney Hall, wife o Phobos diskiverer Asaph Hall.

Stickney coud be seen wi the nakit ee frae the surface o Maurs. It is in the mids o the left lip o Phobos's face, on the Maurs-facin side. It is locate at 5°S 55°W on Phobos.

It haes a smawer, nameless crater inouth it, the affcome o a later dunt.




#Article 129: Adolf Hitler (489 words)


Adolf Hitler (20 Aprile 1889 - 30 Aprile 1945) wis the dictator o Nazi Germany an leader o the Nazi Pairty. Frae 1933 tae 1945 he wis Chaincellor o Germany forby, heid o govrenment, an heid o state. Hitler is an important leader (in German: Führer) in warld history. The militar-industrial complex he makkit helpit Germany git oot o the economic problems efter Warld War I. At ane time, Hitler's govrenment controlled a muckle pairt o Europe. On his order, millions o fowk wis murthert in the Holocaust. He committit suicide in Berlin afore his airmy wis defeatit.

Adolf Hitler wis born on Aprile 20t 1889 at Braunau am Inn, a smaw toun naur Linz in the province o Upper Austrick, nae far frae the German mairch, in whit wis than Austrick-Hungary. 

Adolf wis an mensefu lad, but he failt the heich schuil admeession seys in Linz twice. Thare, he becam interestit in the anti-Semitic (anti-Jewish), Pan-German haivers o Professor Leopold Poetsch.

In 1913, Hitler wis 24. At that time, aw young Austrian men haed tae jyne the airmy. Hitler didna like the Austrian airmy, sae he left Austria for Germany. He steyed in a German ceety, Munich. In 1914, Hitler jynt the German airmy. He did weel for Germany in the First Warld War. He wis hurt in the war. The govrenment gied him the Airn Ruid as an awaird for his bravery. 

In 1919, Hitler jynt a smaw poleetical pairty cried the German Warkers' Pairty. He belyve wun the support o the pairty members. Twa year efter, he becam the heid o the pairty. He renamed the pairty the National Socialist German Warker's Pairty (more aft kent as the Nazi Pairty).

In 1923, Hitler tried to owerthraw the Weimar Republic govrenment in the Swats Haw Putsch, but coudna dae it. The govrenment pit Hitler in the Landsburg Jyle. Thay said that he wad stay in the jyle for 5 year, but thay lat him leave efter 9 month. While he wis in preeson, he wrate a beuk wi the help o his freend Rudolf Hess. At first, Hitler wantit tae cry the beuk Fower an a Hauf Year o Struissle agin Lees, glaikitry an Couardiness. In the end, he cried the beuk Mein Kampf or Ma Struissle. In the beuk, Hitler shaws respect tae his faither. He says that thay haed disagreements. Hitler wisst tae become an airtist. His faither didna like this, he socht Adolf tae wark for the govrenment insteid.

In 1932, Hitler makkit the plans for a caur: later it was the weel-kent Volkswagen Beetle.

In 1933 Hitler gat intil pouer in Germany acause o poleetical manoeuverin. His govrenment immediately began restrictin freedom o speech an the press. It baured aw ither parties cep the Nazi party, an makkit fowk poleetical preesoners. 

On 29 Aprile 1945, Hitler married Eva Braun; anly ane day later they committit suicide in Berlin afore his airmy wis defeatit.




#Article 130: George W. Bush (376 words)


George Walker Bush (born 6 Julie 1946 in New Haven, Connecticut) served as the 43rd Preses o the Unitit States frae 2001 tae 2009 an the 46t Govrenor o Texas frae 1995 tae 2000.

 (born 6t Julie, 1946) wis eleckit Preses o the Unitit States o Americae in 2000, an wis re-eleckit Preses in 2004. Bush is a Republican, an haes Dick Cheney as his Vice Preses. He is frae Midland, Texas, an awns a ranch thare.

He is the son o umwhile U.S. Preses George H. W. Bush. Afore he wis Preses, Bush wis Governor o Texas. He is mairiet on Laura, an thay hae twin dochters, Jenna an Barbara.

Bush wis born in Connecticut, an growed up in Midland, Texas on a ranch. He jynt the Naitional Gaird durin the Vietnam Weir, but didna fecht in Vietnam.
 
He wis first electit in the election o November 2000, wi Dick Cheney as Vice Preses. Florida wis a state whaur election results wis argied ower. It teuk ower a month tae lairn the winner. Bush wis declared tae be the winner, but mony fowk disputes this yet. Acause o the Electoral College seestem, Florida's votes wis key for Bush tae beir the gree, e'en tho Bush lost the naitionwide popular vote tae Al Gore.

At the election o November 2004 Bush run agin the Democratic candidate, John Kerry. He wun his seicont term in that election; the affcome o this election isna in dispute.

His seicont term endit on 20 Januar 2009, when he wis succeedit bi Barack Obama.

He wis Preses at the time o the 11t September attacks.

Bush haes been creiticeised for his role in the 2003 Iraq weir, that he stertit claimin Iraq haed wappens o mass destruction. Nae sic wappens haes been funnd. Efter the attacks o the 11t o September in New York, some haes creiticeised him for his conter-terrorism meisurs an aa. Amang ither things, his admeenistration haes been accuised o ill-daeins wi its extraordinary rendition policy—i.e. takkin terrorist suspects tae kintras whaur laws anent treatment o thaim in the jyle is less strict nor the US, an haein thaim interrogate bi the local polis. His guvrenment haes hauden terrorist suspects athoot trial in Guantánamo Bay, Cuba an aa.




#Article 131: Metre (104 words)


A metre is the basic unit o lenth in the SI meisurment seestem. Bi the wey o an aerly defineition, it wis 1/10,000,000 (ae ten-milliont) o the lenth atween the Yird's equator an the North Powl. The metre is nou offeicially defined as the lenth licht gangs in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 o a seicont.

Ither aften-uised units o lenth is the millimetre (seembol mm, equal tae 1/1000 m), centimetre (seembol cm, equal tae 1/100 m) an kilometre (seembol km, equal tae 1000 m)

In the Imperial seestem o meisurment, ae metre is equal tae aboot 39.37 inch, 3.28 fit, or aboot 1.09 yaird.




#Article 132: Volt (157 words)


The volt is the SI derivate unit for electric potential an voltage (derived frae the ampere an watt). It is named tae honour Alessandro Volta, that inventit the voltaic pile, the first chemical battery, in 1800.

The volt is defined as the potential differ athort a conductor whan a current o ae ampere dissipates ae watt o pouer. It syne haes the base SI representation m2·kg·s−3·A−1, that can be representit juist as weel bi ae joule o energy per coulomb o chairge, or J·C−1. In essence, the volt meisurs hou muckle kinetic energy ilka electron cairies. Ye can syne muliplee the voltage in a circuit bi the current flowe, the ampere, tae gie the tot o electric pouer in the circuit, in watts.

Syne 1990 the defineition o the volt is mainteent internaitionally uisin the Josephson effect, whaur a conventional vailyie is uised for the Josephson constant, fixt bi the 18t CGPM as 

K{J-90} = 0.4835979 GHz/µV.




#Article 133: Newton (unit) (196 words)


In naitural philosophy, the newton (seembol: N) is the SI unit o poust, cryed sae efter Sir Isaac Newton in recogneition o his wark on clessical mechanics. It wis first uised aboot 1904, but it wisna till 1948 that it wis offeicially adoptit bi the General Collogue on Wechts an Meisurs (CGPM) as the name for the MKS unit o poust. 

A newton is defined as the amoont o poust needit tae accelerate a mass o ae kilogram at a rate o ae metre per seicont quadrate. 

The newton is an SI derivate unit, written as kg·m·s−2 in SI base units.

Syne ae defineition o wecht is the poust actin atween twa objects acause o gravity, the newton is the unit o wecht an aa. A mass o ae kilogram naur the Yird's surface haes a wecht o aboot 9.81 N, altho this feigur differs bi a few tents o ae per cent ower the Yird's surface. Conversely, an object wi a mass o 9.81−1 kg (≈ 101.94 g) wyes aboot 1 N. Raither fittinly, gien the yairn anent hou Newton wun at his theory o gravity, this is aboot the mass o a smaa aiple.




#Article 134: SI (183 words)


The SI (French Système internationale d'unités, Internaitional Seestem o Units) is a seestem o meisurin based on the metre for lenth or displacement, kilogram for mass, an saicont for time.

The metre, kilogram an saicont can be uised ane wi anither, makkin units o meisurment for ither quantities, sic as vollum, energy, pressur, an velocity.

Whan talkin anent lairger or smaaer meisurments, mair syllables is uised; for exemplar, kilometre means 1000 meter, an milligram means 1/1000 o a gram. The prefixes is shawn in the table on the richt-haund side.

The SI units wis thocht oot in Fraunce efter the French Revolution.
Thay are nou uised aa ower the warld, but thay arna gey popular in some kintras, sic as the Unitit States.

Even the Unitit Kinrick, that creatit the auld US units o meisurment, is nou metric, acause o staundardeisation athort the European Union.

The SI base units is meisurments uised bi scientists an ither fowk aroond the warld. Aa the other units can be screived bi pittin thir seeven base units thegither in different weys. Thir units is cryed derivate units.




#Article 135: Endurance (crater) (123 words)


Endurance is a dunt crater on Maurs that wis veesitit bi the Opportunity Rinaboot frae Mey until December o 2004. Meession scientists cried the crater efter the Gailey Endurance that sailed tae the Antarctic in an sploration vaige organized bi Ernest Shackleton.

The Rinaboot entered the crater interior on its 134t meession sol (Juin 15), an exited on the 315th sol (December 14t). In throu this time it stravaigit various obstacles, stey inclines, an owercame lairge trinnle slippage whan drivin ower fine saund.

Efter arrivin at the crater, 'Opportunity' performed a scance o the crater tae plan the forder steps in splorin the local areologie. A steid cawit Karatepe wis chuist tae gang in the crater an howk the layerin o the bedrock.

 




#Article 136: Valles Marineris (215 words)


Valles Marineris (Latin for Mariner Valley, named efter the Mariner 9 Maurs orbiter o 1971-72 whilk diskivered it) is a vast canyon seestem that rins alang the Maurtian equator juist aest o the Tharsis reegion. At 2,790 mile lang, 124 mile braid an 6.82 mile howe, the Valles Marineris rift seestem is ten times langer, an sax times hower than the Grand Canyon o Arizona, makkin it the lairgest kent score in the Solar Seestem.

The Valles Marineris is located alang the equator o Maurs, on the aest side o the Tharsis Bumfle an raxs for naurly a fowert o the planet’s circumference. The Valles Marineris seestem stairts in the wast wi the Noctis Labyrinthus, proceeds aest tae Tithonium an Ius Chasmata, than Melas an Ophir Chamata, proceedin tae Coprates Chasma, than Ganges, Capri an Eos Chasmata, finally tuimin oot intil an ootflae lade composed o chaotic terrain an finally the Northern Plains. Maist resairchers gree that Valles Marineris is a lairge tectonic crack in the Martian crust, furmin as the planet cuilt, affected bi the rising crust in the Tharsis reegion tae the wast, an subsequently braidened bi erosional fushions. Houaniver, naur the aestern flanks o the clift thare seems tae be some lades that micht hae been furmed bi watter or carbon dioxide.




#Article 137: Biographies (107 words)


Biographie (frae the Greek wirds bios meanin life, an graphein meanin tae write) is a genre o Leeteratur an ither furms o media like film, foondit on the written accoonts o ain lifes. While a biographie micht focus on a subject o feection or nane-feection, the term is uisually in remit tae nane-feection. As contrair tae a profile or curriculum vitae, a biographie develops quirkie insicht an hielichts unalike texturs o personality includin pack an thick details o experiences. A biographie is mair nor a leet o facts sic as birth, eddication, wark, kin an daith. It dels intil the emotions o experiencin sic events an aw.




#Article 138: Gail Porter (149 words)


Gail Porter (born 23 Mairch 1971 in Edinburgh, Scotland), kent an aa bi her mairit name o Gail Hipgrave, is a Scots televeesion presenter, weel-kent for programmes sic as  Fully Booked, How 2 an Dead Famous.  She is kent forbye for the ongauns ae nicht in 1999, whan monie fowk in Lunnon that juist thocht tae tak a keek tae the waw o the Hooses o Pairlament wis insteid gien a swatch at a gey muckle FHM photie o Gail in the skuddy buff.  This, alang wi monie ither 'cairyin-ons', wis aiblins hou she cam tae be kent mair as the kynd o lassie she is - mebbes it ocht tae be said the 'richt gallus' kynd - raither nor juist as a presenter, enterteiner, or oniething ither in parteicular.

In 2001 Gail wis mairit on Dan Hipgrave fae the band Toploader, an she haes a dochter cried Honey.




#Article 139: Leet o kintras (131 words)


This is an alphabetical leet o kintras o the warld, wi baith internationally recogneesed an for ordinar unrecogneesed unthirlt states, dwalt in dependent territories, as weel as auries o byordinar sovereignty. It covers aa auries unner the jurisdeection o the listit kintras, namely territory, territorial waters (wi internal watters an contiguous zones), Exclusive Economic Zone, continental shelf an airspace. For juist a leet o unthirlt states, see the leet o sovereign states.

The names o kintras in the leet is gien in Scots wi baith the cutty offeecial names (e.g. Afghanistan) an the (langer) offeecial name (e.g. The Islamic Republic o Afghanistan). The listin o ony name in this airticle isna ettelt tae implee an offeecial poseetion in ony namin tuilyie.

On this leet are 245 entities o the follaein kynd:




#Article 140: Naitural philosophy (219 words)


Naitural philosophy or physics (frae the Greek  (), naitural, an  (), naitur) is a science o naitur in the braidest furm. Naitural philosophy deals wi maiter an energy an the fundamental virrs o naitur that owersees the interactions atween particles. Physicists studie a braid reenge o physical phenomenae, frae the sub-nuclear particles that maks up aw ordinar maiter (particle physics) tae the maiteral Universe as a hail (cosmologie).

Physics is the natural science at involves the study ay matter and its motion ben space and time, alang wi related concepts sic as energy and force. Mair broadly, it is the general analysis ay nature, conducted in order tae kin hoo the universe behaves. It is a body ay the oldest academic disciplines, aiblins the oldest ben its inclusion ay astronomy. Ower the lest tois millennia, physics was a part ay naitural philosophy alang wi chemistry, certain branches ay mathematics, and biology, but durin the scientific revolution in the 17th century, the naitural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their ain reit. Physics intersects wi mony interdisciplinary areas ay research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boondaries ay physics arenae rigidly defined. New ideas in physics aft explain the fundamental mechanisms ay other sciences while openin new avenues ay research in areas sic as mathematics and philosophy.




#Article 141: Mathematics (130 words)


Mathematics is the studie o feck, structur, room, an chynge. Historically, Mathematics developed frae coontin, calculation, meisurement, an the studie o the shapes an muivins o pheesical objects, throu the uise o abstraction an deductive raesonin.

Mathematics is uised forbye tae remit tae the insicht gained bi fowk bi daein mathematics, forbye kent as the bodie o mathematical ken. This hinder meanin o mathematics includes the mathematics uised tae dae warkin oots or models an is an indispensable tuil in the naitural sciences, ingineerin, an economics.

The wird mathematics comes frae the Greek μάθημα (máthema) meanin science, ken, or lairnin an μαθηματικός (mathematikós) meanin fond o lairnin.

Mathematics help fowks tae understand in sindry domeins. See the airticle o'er reality tae understand a practical example o the uise o mathematics.




#Article 142: Pape Benedict XVI (215 words)


Benedict XVI (, , ; born Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger on 16 Aprile 1927) wis the (Twa hundert an saxtie fift) 265th ringin Pape, the heid o the Roman Catholic Kirk an sovereign o Vatican Ceity. He wis electit on 19 Aprile 2005, in a papal conclave that he moderated ower in his capacity as dean o the College o Cardinals. He slockened his Papal Handsel Mass on 24 Aprile 2005 an wis enthroned in the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano on Mey 7t, 2005.

Ane o the maist influential academic theologians syne the 1960s an Owthor o mony beuks, he is seen as conservative an a sib ally o his Aforecomer, Pape John Paul II. He serred as Airchbishop o Munich, Prefect o the Congregation for the Lair o the Faith an Dean o the College o Cardinals afore bein makkit the Pape.

The Pape in parteecular emphasizes the need for Europe tae tak back whit he sees as it's vailyies, acause o the increasin secularisation o maist o the Wastren Warld. He visitit Scotland on 16 September 2010 as pairt o a state veesit tae the Unitit Kinrick.

Benedict XVI demittit as Pape on 28 Februar 2013, in the first papal demission syne 1415, an wis succeedit bi Pape Francis on 13 Mairch.




#Article 143: Pape John Paul II (172 words)


Pape John Paul II (Laitin: Ioannes Paulus PP. II), born Karol Józef Wojtyła (Mey 18t, 1920 in Wadowice (Poland) – Aprile 2nt, 2005), reigned as pape o the Catholic Kirk for naurhaund 27 year, frae 16t October 1978 till his daith, makkin his the thrid-langest ring in the Historie o the Papacy bi the Roman Catholic Kirk's tradeetional wey o it. Durin his ring he helpit tae bring doun communism bi support o the Pols Solidairity an wis kent as the Great Traiveller due tae the monie kintras he veesitit durin his ring. In 1982 he veesitit Scotland an gied mass at Murrayfield Stadium in Embra an at Bellahouston Pairk in Glesca. At the latter o the twa masses 800,000 fowks attendit an that wis a record ootthrou the hale o Breetain. On 13t Mey 2005, Pape Benedict XVI, John Paul II's heir, waived the five year waitin time for a raison for beatification tae be opened. The offeecial process for beatification begoud in the Diocese o Roum on Juin 28t, 2005. 




#Article 144: Nessie (112 words)


The Loch Ness Monster, bytimes cried Nessie or Ness (Scottish Gaelic: Niseag) is a craitur or curn craiturs said tae stey in Loch Ness, a howe caller watter loch naur the ceety o Innerness in northren Scotland. Nessie is aften thocht tae be a muckle kelpie.

Alang wi Bigfit an the Yeti/Abominable Snawman, Nessie is ane o the maist-kent meesteries in cryptozoologie thou maist mainstream scientists an ither profites find praisent evident stuitin Nessie unpersuasive an regaird sic sichtins as rises or misidentification o mundane craiturs.

Some fowk says that Nessie is an aquatic deenosaur frae the auld time. Ithers says it's a submarine, or a stray log, or ither benign object.




#Article 145: Cara Dillon (101 words)


Cara Dillon (born 21 Julie 1975 in Dungiven, Coonty Lunnonderry, Northren Ireland) is a fowk sangster frae Dungiven in Northren Irland.  In the twa albums she haes pit oot up til nou (Cara Dillon an Sweet Liberty), she haes gien a wheen o auld Irish an Scots sangs, sic as Black is the Colour, Craigie Hill an Donald of Glencoe, a spleet-new gaun ower in her ain saft lilt.

Cara is mairit on Sam Lakeman (that's her producer forby). The couple live in Frome wi their three childer, twin sons (born 17 November 2006) an a dochter (born 12 October 2010).




#Article 146: Ruth England (173 words)


Ruth England (born 29 Mairch 1970) is an Inglis televeesion presenter, weel-kent for haein presentit the ITV traivel shaw Wish You Were Here...? for the last twa year o its lang rin.  She haed stertit oot on telly daein a braid reenge o programmes, fae wittins on Channel 5 tae a naitral historie shaw on National Geographic.  In 2001, altho she wisna yit kent by monie fowk, she wis speirt if she wad tak ower fae Mary Nightingale on Wish You Were Here...? On the shaw she gaed aa ower the warld hersel, but forbye haunded ower ilka week for ane or mair traivel featurs bi a hail reenge o weel-kent fowk, sic as Mark Little, Cat Deeley, Gail Porter an Grant Stott.

Wish You Were Here...? wis stappit bi ITV in 2003.  Houaniver, Ruth presentit 'het-up' bits fae the programme on Wish You Were Here..Today, pitten oot ilka day for three weeks in the Januar o baith 2004 an 2005.  She haes presentit Forever Eden in the USA forby, braidcast bi Fox.




#Article 147: Yird (401 words)


Yird, itherwise kent as the Warld or the Globe, is the third planet frae the Sun an the anerly object in the  universe  kent tae herbour life.  It is the densest planet in the Solar Seestem an the lairgest o the fower terrestrial planets.

Accordin tae radiometric datin an ither soorces o evidence, Yird formed aboot 4.54 billion years aby. Yird's gravity interacts wi ither objects in space, especially the Sun an the Muin, Yird's anerly naitural satellite. In ane orbit aroond the Sun, Yird rotates aboot its axis ower 365 times; sicweys, an Yird year is aboot 365.26 days lang. Yird's axis o rotation is tilted, producin saisonal variations on the planet's surface. The gravitational interaction atween the Yird an Muin causes ocean tides, stabilizes the Yird's orientation on its axis, an gradually slaws its rotation.

Yird's lithosphere is dividit intae several rigid tectonic plates that migrate athort the surface ower periods o mony millions o years. Aboot 71% o Yird's surface is covered wi watter, maistly bi its oceans. The remeenin 29% is laund conseestin o continents an islands that thegither hae mony lochs, rivers an ither soorces o watter that contreibute tae the hydrosphere. The majority o Yird's polar regions are covered in ice, includin the Antarctic ice sheet an the sea ice o the Arctic ice pack. Yird's interior remeens active wi a solit airn inner core, a liquid ooter core that generates the Yird's magnetic field, an a convectin mantle that drives plate tectonics.

Accordin tae scientists, within the first billion year o Yird's history, life appeared in the oceans an began tae affect the Yird's atmosphere an surface, leadin tae the proliferation o aerobic an anaerobic organisms. Some geological evidence indicates that life mey hae arisen as muckle as 4.1 billion year aby. Syne then, the combination o Yird's distance frae the Sun, pheesical properties, an geological history hae allaed life tae evolve an thrive. In the history o the Yird, biodiversity haes gane throu lang periods o expansion, occasionally punctuatit bi mass extinction events. Ower 99% o aw species that ever leeved on Yird are extinct. Estimates o the nummer o species on Yird theday vary widely; maist species hae nae been descrived. Ower 7.4 billion humans leeve on Yird an depend on its biosphere an meenerals for thair survival. Humans hae developed diverse societies an cultursally, the warld haes aboot 200 sovereign states.




#Article 148: Isaac Newton (354 words)


Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 Mairch 1727 bi the Julian calendar in uiss in Ingland at the time; or 4 Januar 1643 – 31 Mairch 1727 bi the Gregorian calendar) wis an Inglish pheesicist, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher an alchemist that wrate the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. In it he descrieved universal gravitation an, throu his laws o motion, laid the foonds for classical mechanics. Newton wis the man that developed the differential calculus an aw daein sae thirty year afore Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz that aften shares wis the first tae mak a set o mathematical laws that coud predeect baith ordinar motion an celestial motion. He is associate wi the scientific revolution an the forder o heliocentrism. Newton is creeditit forby wi providin mathematical substantiation for Kepler's laws o planetary motion. He wad rax thir laws bi shawin that orbits (sic as the orbits o comets) wisna juist elliptic, but coud be hyperbolic an parabolic an aw. He is kenspeckle for his arguments that licht wis componed o particles an aw. He wis the first tae feegur that the spectrum o colour seen whan white licht passes throu a prism is inherent in the white licht an no eikit bi the prism as Roger Bacon haed thocht in the 13t century.

Forby thon Newton developed a law o cuilin, descrievin the rate o cuilin for objects whan exposed ti the air; the hale binomial theorem; an the preenciples o conservation o momentum an angular momentum. Finally, he studied the speed o soond in air, an spak aboot a theory on the oreegin o starns.

Newton's laws o motion an gravity gied awbody the foonds for spaein mony sindry scienteefic or ingineerin situations, especially the motion o celestial bodies. His calculus pruived gey important ti the oncome o further scienteefic theories. Finally, he pit mony o the aesome pheesics facts that haed been discovert afore thegither intil a saitisfeein seestem o laws. For this, he is conseidert ane o history's greatest scientists, rankin abuin sic feegurs as Einstein an Gauss.

God said, Let Newton be! and all was light. —poem, Alexander Pope




#Article 149: Algebra (183 words)


Algebra is ane o the maist basic brainches o mathematics. Tho it isna aesie defined, it is chairacterised bi the uiss o seembols tae represent some operations, an o letters tae represent nummers or ither elements. 

Algebra can be spleet up intae thir fields:

Algebra, like coontin an geometry, is ane o the auldest brainches o mathematics. The name comes frae a beuk bi the Arabian mathemateecian Al-Khwarizmi cried Kitab al-jabr wa al-muqabalah (The beuk o summary anent calculatin bi transposeition an reduction).

Algebra wis cleckit for tae help solve equations. The solutions o linear an quadratic equations wis aareadies kent lang syne. In the 16t century Italian mathemateecians fund solutions tae cubic an quartic equations. In 1799 Gauss shawed that “ilka algebraic equation o degree n, haes n ruits (solutions), rael or imaginar”.

At the stairt o the 19t century Niels Abel an Evariste Galois pruived that the solutions o equations o degree bigger nor 4 canna be expressed uisin coeffeicients o the equation an algebraic operations juist—that is, the'r nae generalisation o the quadratic, cubic or quartic formulae tae heicher degrees.




#Article 150: Penda o Mercia (141 words)


Penda (dee'd November 15, 655) wis a 7t-century Keeng o Mercia, a kinrick in whit is the day the Inglis Midlands. A pagan at a tyme whan Christianity wis takkin haud in mony o the Anglo-Saxon kinrick, Penda pairteecipatit in the defait o the pouerfu Northumbrian keeng Edwin at the Battle o Hatfield Chase in 633. Nine years later, he defaited an felled Edwin's eventual successor, Oswald, at the Battle o Maserfield; frae this pynt he wis liklin the maist pouerfu o the Anglo-Saxon rulers o the tyme. He defaited the Aest Angles, cawed the king o Wessex intil fleme for three years, an continued tae wauge weir agin the Bernicians o Northumbria. Thirteen years aifter Maserfield, he tholed a grushin defait an wis felled at the Battle o the Winwaed in the coorse o a hinmaist campaign agin the Bernicians.




#Article 151: Gaelic Storm (110 words)


Gaelic Storm is a weel-acclaimed Celtic baund.

Gaelic Storm's oreegins can be traced back tae 1996, whan Patrick Murphy an Steve Wehmeyer jyned wi Steve Twigger for tae perform at O'Brien's Erse Howf an Restaurant, o whilk Murphy wis the manager.  This led tae a nummer o howf performances for the neist year.

In 1997, Gaelic Storm kythed in the film Titanic as a pairtie baund.  This guttied thaim intil gatin, whaur thay wis met wi sevendle  sonse an popularity.

Tae this date, Gaelic Storm gates randielin, an ploys owre 125 trysts a year.  

Owre tyme, the baund eikit the members Ryan Lacey, Ellery Klein, an Peter Purvis.

Ae-Tyme Members:




#Article 152: Simeon Solomon (314 words)


Simeon Solomon (9 October 1840 – 14 August 1905) wis a Inglish Pre-Raphaelite penter.

Simeon wis born intil a kenspeckle Ebreuish familie. He wis the aicht an last bairn born tae kenspeckle merchand Meyer Solomon an airtist Kathe Levey. Simeon wis a younger brither tae fellae penters Abraham Solomon (1824-1862) an Rebecca Solomon (1832-1886).

Born an educate in Lunnon, Solomon stairtit gittin lecturs in pentin fae his aulder brither aboot 1850. He stairtit at Carey's Airt Academie in 1852. His audlder sister first exhibeetit her warks at the Ryal Academy athin the same year.

As a student at the Ryal Academy Schuils, Simeon wis introduced throu Dante Gabriel Rossetti tae ither members o the Pre-Raphaelite circle, includin the poet Algernon Charles Swinburne an the penter Edward Burne-Jones in 1857. His frist exhibeetion wis at the Ryal Academie in 1858. He conteenad tae haud exhibeetions o his wark at the Ryal Academie atween 1858 an 1872. In addeetion tae the leeterar pentins favoured bi the Pre-Raphaelite schuil, Solomon's subjects aften included scenes frae the Ebreu Bible an genre pentins shawin Jewish life an reetuals.

In 1873 his career wis cuttit short whan he wis liftit in a public toilet in Lunnon an chairged wi undacent exposure. He wis feyed tae ser aichten month' haurd laubour in the jyle, but this wis later reduced tae polis superveesion. He flew tae the French Thrid Republic. He wis houaniver liftit again in 1874, an syne wis feyed tae spend three month in the jyle.

In 1885 he wis admeetit tae the puirhoose whaur he continad tae mak warks; houaniver, his life an ingine wis scaudered bi alcoholism. Twintie year efter in 1905, he dee'd frae wimples brocht on bi his alcoholism. He wis birriet in a Ebreu cemetery in Willesden.

Ensaumples o his wark is on permanent shaw at the Victoria an Albert Museum an at Leighton Hoose.




#Article 153: Unitit Naitions Security Cooncil (190 words)


The Unitit Naitions Security Cooncil (in Frainch: Conseil de sécurité des Nations unies, in Inglis: United Nations Security Council) is, unner the Unitit Nations Chairter, the bodie that hauds the lane richt tae, on maiters anent peace in the warld, mak resolutions that aa kintras maun tak tent tae gin they are members o the Cooncil or no, acause thay are syne thirlt tae thaim bi law. At the meenit the Cooncil conseests o fifteen members, wi five kintras (Fraunce, Roushae, the Unitit Kinrick, the Unitit States an China) that haes the richt tae aye be members an that forbye haud the pouer tae nae-say onie resolution pitten forrit, alang wi ten ither members waled bi, an frae, aa the kintras that maks up the Unitit Nations as a hail.

Monie kintras nou conseeders that thare shuid be mair nor fifteen kintras on the Cooncil, an that mair nor five shuid hae the richt tae aye be on it. Houaniver, ilkane o the five kintras that wad hae maist pouer taen frae thaim bi sic a chynge yit haes the richt tae nae-say it, gin thay chuise tae uise it.




#Article 154: Samantha Brown (190 words)


Samantha Brown is a host o several traivel programs on the Travel Channel, a cable televeesion network foondit in New York. In her role o hostess she introduces viewers tae internaitional vacation destinations, hottles an vacation hames, an splores the locations an acteevities thir destinations offer. Her Travel Channel credits include Passport tae Europe an Great Hotels

Born in Dallas Texas in 1969, her familie belyve flittit tae the New Hampshire ceity o New Castle whaure she grew up. She teuk 12 years o vyce lessons, an tent Syracuse Varsity studyin muisical theater. Her aerlin career included wirkin in commercials, includin ployin the spokesperson Wendy Wire for a company cried Century Cable. She wis forbye inrowed in the comedy sketch menyie The Mouth, foondit in New York whaure she haes steyt for ten years. Her wark in comedy is clairlin apparent in the dryachtie humor she brings tae her travel shaws. She haes forbye kythed in several Broadway shaws as an actress an sangster. Throu oot 1999 an 2000 the Travel Channel wis leukin for a traivel host an a series o auditions weis hauded an Samantha Brown wis waled.




#Article 155: Leonardo da Vinci (2117 words)


Leonardo da Vinci (15 Aprile 1452 - 2 Mey 1519) wis born in Florence, Italy. He wis an Italian penter, sculptor, muisic componer, makar, bigger, inventor an ingineer.

Amang Leonardo's best kent picturs is The Last Supper an the Mona Lisa.

Leonardo da Vinci developed a new wey o pentin. Airtists o his tyme for ordinar uised a white backgrund ti pent picturs. Houaniver he uised a daurk backgrund. This coud bring oot a three-dimensional effect in the main object.

Leonardo da Vinci tho maist weill kent as an Airtist o the  Renaissance Style wes a Lad o Pairts at doukit his haund intil a wheen ither skeills an subjecks. Anatomie o the human bodie,Aeronautics an Architectur ar juist twa three sic interess o the man amang a fouth o ithers, an wi the speirins athin his faumous note buiks kythes an ingyne at wes monie year hunders aheid o the times.

Thare isna an affa gret amoont kent o this pairt o da Vinci's life ither nor at he wes gien the nemm Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (Leonardo,the son o Ser Piero frae Vinci) whan he wes born. His faither Piero da Vinci (a Notary) an Mither Caterina wernae mairriet .
While he wes i his bairnheid his Mither haed mairriet on anither man an stertit a new faimlie.His cauf grunnd frae aroond five year auld wes the estate o his faithers faimlie whaur his Uncle anaa helpit oot wi the upbring o the yung Leonardo an it is frae him at he taen on his luv o natur.

Whan he wes fowerteen year auld his faither haed him apprenticed wi a faur kent feigure o the day i the Airt Warld cryed Andrea del Verrocchio, at wes skeilly as a Sculptor ,Penter an Gowdsmith.
Leonardo is maist like tae hae becam aquent wi ither Maisters at Verrochio's aft busy studio sic as Sandro Botticelli , alang wi wirkin aside apprentice Dominico Ghirlandaio,  Lorenzo di Credi an Pietro Perogino.

Verrocchio wes the Sculptor tae The Medici Faimlie ( The Heidmaist Faimlie o thon times i the Region).
Verrocchio hissel haed lairned frae the maister Donatello. Sicwyce wi the airtin o Verrocchio the yung Leonardo haed growne frae a loun at wad dae the mair laich like darg o mixin pents an reddin surfaces, til a bodie at wad study an copy his maisters wirk an maist like haunder Verrocchio wi his Commissions alang wi the ither apprentice o the Studio.

Duarand his haill apprenticeship da Vinci's ken o Sculptin,Pentin an drawin haed blumed alang wi a fouth o lear he haed ontaen frae ither skeilled fowk at haed kythed at the aft busy Studio,
Ann aa ,Sindrie skeills the like o mechanics, cairpentry,metallurgie ,chemistrie an Architectural drawin wad hae been aw aroond him.

A wirk cryed Landscape Drawing for Santa Maria della Neve wrocht wi pen an ink is the aerliest wirk at belangs  da Vinci we hae an gies us his depictioun o The Arno River Valley.

Nooadays heistorians at luiks at maister wirks o Verrocchio frae thon era pynt tae Leonardo da Vinci's kent brush straiks athin sic wirks. Verrocchio's The Baptism of Christ an The Annunciation bein twa sic wirks thocht tae hae parteicular pattrens belangin da Vinci.

Tho in 1472 da Vinci wes bidden tae jyne The Penters Guild o Florence, aye he cairried furth wi his study as assistant unner Verrocchio til 1476.

Atween 1476 an 1481 heistorians believe da Vinci awned his ain Wirkshop i Florence,hooanever nae a gret amoont is kent o twa three o thae years,aiblins acause o Coort records o the day shawin at da Vinci alang wi three fiers wes chairged wi sodomy ,tho efterhaund thay war aquittit it is mair nor like at thon scandal made him haud wide o public life durand sic a traumatic period.

I the years atween the back o the 1470's tae the aerlie 1480's it is thocht at da Vinci wes bidden tae ontak his first commissioned wirk cryed  The Adoration of the Magi bi a Scopeto Monastery i Florence bi the nemmm o San Donato. He wes nevir tae feinish sic a commission,aiblins acause o the scandal, or bein wyled tae forder his carreer he flittit tae Milan.

I Milan he ontaen wirk for the Sforza Faimlie, at wes the rulin Faimlie o thon aurie. Fee'd as a Sculptor,Architect,Penter an Ingineer Leonardo da Vinci wrocht a Bronze equestrian Stookie o the foonder o the Sforza  Dynastie ,Franscesco Sforza ower the nixt twal year.At the hinnerend hooanever it wes War wi The Frainch at stymied thon projeck.The Bronze at wes pitten aside for uisse i the wirk wes taen itherwhaurs tae be uised for War Cannons.

The awreddie completed clay stookie at da Vinci haed creatit wes connacht a puckle year efter whan the Sforza Duke wes cawed frae pouer.

Alsae, i the years 1495-98 whan fee'd tae the Sforza Faimlie Leonardo da Vinci haed wirkit noo an thans on and o  his maist faur kent Pentin The Last Supper. This wirk 
is a Mural Pentin at daiks the waa o The Refectorie o The Monastrie o Santa Maria delle Grazia i Milan whaur ither wirks o ken war present.

Tho The Last Supper is ane o the maist Faumous Pentins i the warld,mistaks war made bi da Vinci wi techniques he uised.

The new cleckit style o uisin Tempera on Stane turned oot tae be a wrang deceision ower the fack at athin fiftie year o its completioun pent haed begoud tae faw aff an pairts o the wirk haed sicwyce mizzled.

I modren days 1980 tae 1999 an upmak wes ontaen tae retour virr tae the oreiginal wirk ,tho a gret amoont o the oreiginal pent wes tint.

Efter his Patron Ludovica Sforza wes cawed frae pouer wi the incomin o The Frainch Airmy i 1499,Leonardo da Vinci haed fled frae Milan  alang wi Mathematician Lucas Pacioli an retoured tae Florence via veisits tae baith Mantua an Venice.

Leonardo da Vinci's nemm wes mair kent noo sae as Whan i Venice the Veneitian Govrenin Cooncil haed speired him anent hou tae halt onie incomin  Turks tae the aurie o Friuli. The recommends gien frae da Vinci war at they shuid fluid the haill pestit region.

Upo his hamecomin tae Florence da Vinci wes laudit as a weill luved son at wes walcomed bi auld freends an new Airtist an aa as a Penter at haed cleckit monie a new style o airt.

Sae i 1500 wi him noo sattelt i Florence agane he set aboot forderin his career wi the Pentin Virgin and Child with Saint Anne,tho he wad set aside the wirk an no feinish it for anither 10 year.

Monie modren day heistorian trow at 1503 is the year at Leonardo da Vinci begoud aiblins his maist weill kent wirk The Mona Lisa (Betimes kent as La Gioconda) acause o the maistlins acceptit beleif at The Mona Lisa is a Pentin o the wife o his Patron for the wirk  Francesco del Gioconda.

Tho aftimes heistorians hae airgied ower wha the true face o Mona Lisa belangs it is beleived tae be Francesco del Gioconda's wife Lisa.

The Mona Lisa wes pentit atween the years 1503 an 1519 an is thocht o as the maist faumous Airtwirk i the Warld the day.

It hings nooadays i  The Louvre i Fraunce.

He taen on a wheen ither commissions aroond this time,ane bein The Battle of Anghiari, betimes cryed The Lost Leonardo acause o it haen been tint awthegither.

Some heistorians an Airt commentators trow it is dernt ablo ane o da Vinci's later frescoe's at ar keepit inside The Ha o the five hunder or  Salone dei Cinquecento i  The Palazzo Vecchio i Florence. The pentin itsel haes as its main scene three men wi horse fankled i a battle tae claucht a Banner.

In 1506 Leonardo da Vinci wes bidden back tae Milan an aiblins it wes this at wes tae lea The Battle o Anghiaro Pentin unfeinished. He wes askit tae retour tae Milan bi The Govrenor o Lombardy Charles d'Amboise wha wes hissel a weill kent nemm o the times.

Amang the nabs o the day da Vinci wes a  gey popular feigure, sicwyce at The Govrenment i Florence wes foraye screivin letters tae the Frainch rulers gin da Vinci wad retour tae Florence for tae feinish The Battle o Anghiari pentin,as thay haed awreddies peyed for hit. Thair letters war gien the deif lug bi the Frainch tho an Leonardo bade on i Milan.

Weill thocht o bi baith patrons Charles d'Amboise an Keing Lois XII, nanetheless da Vinci ontaen less Pentin wirks an mair wirk anent Architectural maitters.

His noo faumous notebuiks o the time shaw us plans an screivins for a Pailace Villa for d'Amboise alang wi ithers for an Oratory at The Kirk o Santa Maria alla Fontana at wes alsae fundit bi his patron Charles d'Amboise.

Athin this saicont period i Milan da Vinci haed gaithered roond hissel a curn o students,baith auld follaers the like o  Bernardino de Conti an Sudai alang wi new students Cesare de Sesto, Giampetrino , Bernardino Luini an a yung Gallant nemmed Franscisco  Melzi wha wes hissel tae becum a gey close fier o Leonardo til his daith.

Wi the mellin o his wirk wi the faur kent Anatomist Marcantonio della Torre frae Pavia da Vinci's ain knawledge o Anatomie haed flouered i this period ,ootpitten plans for exack sketchins o the human bodie an physiologie.

Athin his manuscripts an jotters o thir time we hae fouth o mathematical,mechanical,optical,geological an botanical studies at shaws us da Vinci's thochts anent motion,mechanical functions an whit drives thaim.

I 1513 at the age o 60 year auld Leonardo da Vinci flittit agane frae Milan efter the Frainch war flung oot. He gaed tae Roum wi his close fiers Melzi an Salai alang wi twa ither o his assistants tae try an win wirk wi the help o his Patron  Giuliano Medici wha wes the Brither o the new  Pape Leo X.
Tho gien a monthly stipend an a ruim i the Vatican tae bide in ,nae new commisions war tae befaw him.

The neist three year i Roum at follaed war a dissapyntment tae da Vinci an sae wi monie a letter he ootpit kythes his thochts anent this. Monie o the kent nemms o the day war eident wi thair ain wirks an projecks ,the like o Raphael pentin the ruims for the new Pape, an Michael Angelo an his strauchles tae feinish The Tomb o Pape Julius II an alsae wi yunger Artist's   Timoteo Viti an Sodoma wha war aye thrang.

Aiblins nou conseidered the Auld Maister hissel Leonardo wad wirk quaet like i his studio on Mathematical studies an surveyin o Auld Warld moniments,as aftimes he wad daunder throu tha Ceity daein sic like.

Nae records o thon time pynt tae Leonardo da Vinci haein contack wi onie Airtists ither nor  Donato Bramante, the weill kent Penter an Architect ,tho he hissel haed dee'd i 1514.

A map drawin o The Puntine Marshes reclamation pynts us tae Leonardo haein a consultin pairt for 
 Giuliano de Medici's projeck frae 1514, alang wi sketchins for a muckle biggin i Florence for the Medici,wha war agane in pouer frae 1512 ,tho thon parteicular projeck wes nevir stertit.

At the hin-end o 1516 an the age o 65 year auld Leonardo da Vinci acceptit a bidden tae gang tae Fraunce for the new yung Keing Francis I ,an sicwyce aiblins wi sic dissapyntments aforehaund i Roum he left Italy foraye ,alang wi his maist devotit pupil Melzi.

The hinmaist three year o his life he bade i Cloux,efterhaund cryed Closluće,no faur awa frae The yung Keings simmer Pailace at Amboise on the Loire.

The nemm gied him o (Premier peintre architecte et méchanicien du Roi) or First Penter ,Architect an Ingineer tae The Keing wes a nemm he wure prood like. The Keing hissel keepit da Vinci as a guest o honour, at alloued him muckle freedom tae wirk wi plans for The Pailace an Gairden o Ronorantin ,at wes tae be the weidae hame for The Queen Mither.The projeck wes stymied tho whan the hail region wes pestit bi Malaria.

Tho he duin nae gret amoont o pentin i Fraunce  he ontaen tae edit his scienteefic studies,alang wi his anatomie studies.

He dee'd at Cloux i 1519 an wes burried i The Pailace Kirk o Saunt Florentine. His Graff is nooadays unkent efter the Kirk wes connacht durand The Frainch Revolution an wes hailly pullt doon at the afftak o The 19t Century.




#Article 156: Buckminster Fuller (112 words)


Richard Buckminster Bucky Fuller (12 Julie, 1895 - 1 Julie, 1983) wis an American visionary, designer, architect, an inventor. He wis a professor at Southern Illinois Varsity forbye an an eydent writer.

Fuller wis best kent for his geodesic domes, that can be seen as pairt o military radar stances, ceivic biggins, an exhibeetion attractions. Their construction is foondit on extendin some basic preenciples ti big semple tensegrity structurs (tetrahedron, octahedron, an the closest packin o speres). Biggit in this gate thay are unco lichtwecht an stable. The patent for geodesic domes wis awairdit in 1954, pairt o Fuller's decades-lang ettles til splore naiture's princeeples o biggin for ti finnd design solutions.




#Article 157: Lithuanie (116 words)


The Republic o Lithuanie (Lithuane: Lietuvos Respublika), kent braidly as juist Lithuanie, is a kintra in nor'-eastren Europe.

Ane o the three Baltic States at the Baltic Sea, it mairches wi Latvie tae the north, Belaroushie tae the sooth-east, Poland tae the sooth, an the Kaliningrad Oblast o Roushie tae the sooth-wast.

The maist muckle an populous o the Baltic states, Lithuanie haes aboot 100 km o saundy coastline, aboot 38 km o't faces the appen Baltic Sea. Lithuanie's major wairm-watter port o Klaipėda is at the nairae mooth o Kuršių marios (Curonian bucht), a shauld bucht raxin sooth tae Kaliningrad.

The chief river, the Nemunas, an a puckle o its tributaries cairies internaitional shippin vessels.




#Article 158: Pi (248 words)


Pi, kent as Ludolph's nummer or Archimedes' constant an aw, is an irraitional nummer that's gey uissfu in mathematics an naitural philosophy. The seembol uised for it comes frae the 16t letter o the Greek ABC, π

π can be defined aither as the ratio atween the perimeter an the diameter o a circle, or as the area o a circle that's radius equals 1 (the unit circle).

Acause π is an irraitional nummer, it canna be written wi a finite nummer o decimal places. It's kent that π is a transcendental nummer an aw; houaniver, the hypothesis that it is a ordinar nummer, haesna yet been pruiven the tae wey or the tither. Calculation o the vailyie o π tae sae monie decimal places as is possible haes become a popular task tae set gey swith computers. An approximate vailyie o π wis aareadies kent in the 20t C ACE in Babylon. Archimedes, in the 3d C ACE, fund the weel-kent approxmiation 22/7. In ther 17t C Ludolph Van Ceulen wis successfu in calculatin the vailyie o π tae 35 decimal places. In 1949 a computer (Eniac) wis uised for the first time, an calculatit the first 2 037 decimals. In 2003 the first 1 241 100 000 000 (1.241 billion) digits o π wis calculate.

The vailyie o π roondit tae the first 64 digits (sequence  in the OEIS) is thon:

Ye can hae a keek at e'en mair digits o π: , , , .




#Article 159: Hans Christian Ørsted (180 words)


Hans Christian Ørsted (Rudkøbing 14 August,1777 ndash; 9 Mairch,1851 in Copenhagen) wis a Dens pheesicist an chemist, influenced bi the conceits o Immanuel Kant. In 1820 he diskivered the relationship atween eletric an magnetism in an unco semple experiment. He shawed that a wire cairyin a current dow deflect a magnetised compass needle. Ørsted dinnae suggest onie guid explanation o the phenomenon, nor did he ettle ti represent the phenomenon in a mathematical framework.

Ørsted wisna the first body ti discover that eletric an magnetism are relatit. Gian Domenico Romagnosi, an Italian legal scholar, discovert the connection 18 year afore. An accoont o Romagnosi's discovery wis published in 1802 in an Italian newspaper, but it wisna noticed bi the scienteific commonty.

In 1825 he produced alumeenium for the first time.

The CGS unit o magnetic induction (the oersted) is named in honour o his wark in the field o electromagnetism.

On his passin in 1851, Hans Christian Ørsted wis birriet in the Assistens Kirkegård in the Nørrebro section o Copenhagen. He wis the brither o the politeecian Anders Sandøe Ørsted.




#Article 160: Million (153 words)


Ae million (1,000,000), or ae thoosand thoosand, is the naitural nummer efter 999,999 an afore 1,000,001. In scienteefic notation, it's written as 106.

The million is whiles uised as a metaphor for a gey muckle nummer, as in Ne'er in a million year, or a hyperbole, as in A'v walked a million mile. Hence, a millionaire can mean juist a rich bodie, nae maiter the actual siller or the exact quantity. Il Milione is the teetle o Marco Polo's narration o his traivels tae Cheenae. The name is jaloused tae come frae Polo's byname efter his tales o riches an multitudes.

The wird million is common tae the dock scale an lang scale nummerin seestems (an tae the proposed Rowlett nummerin seestem forby), no like the muckler nummers that haes differin names in the twa seestems.

The name is derived frae Italian, whaur milla wis 1,000, an 1,000,000 becam millione, a lairge thoosand.




#Article 161: BBC America (291 words)


BBC America is the BBC Warldwide awned-an-operatit cable televeesion netwark in the Unitit States. It wis lencht on Mairch 29t, 1998.

Frae the affset, BBC America haes the chice heilichts frae the UK telly netwarks, includin comedy, drama, an lifestyle programmin. Ower an abuin this thare's at least fower hauf-oor BBC World news bulletins includit in ilka 24 oor period. The day, the creetically-acclaimed hielichts o the BBC netwarks airs in primetime slots, while the daytime is gien tae ranes o hame-betterment shaws sic as Changing Rooms.

BBC America is distribute in troke wi Discovery Networks, the faither company o the Discovery Channel, that haundles the affiliate an adverteesin sales an aw. The chainel, unalike the BBC's hamelt netwarks that's paid for throu telly leeshence fees, is fendit alanerly throu adverteesin. Houaniver, the comedy programs rins in ance-eerant-formattit stocks that allous thaim tae rin uneditit (this haes begoud tae chynge).

Aforehaund, BBC America simulcast news bulletins frae BBC Warld wi U.S. adverteesin insertit. Thay nou rin adverteesin-free. Oot throu major breakin news situations, the netwark will whiles tak BBC World's cuiver an pre-empt raiglar programmin. The Lunnon Bombins in Julie 2005 wis ane example o siclike.

BBC America caused some dismay tae some viewers whan it rappit the saip opera EastEnders in October 2003, but it agrufee'd  that the shaw wis ane o the chainel's least likit, awthou EastEnders, alang wi ither BBC programmin kythes on PBS chainels. It nou airs rerins o The Office, Keeping Up Appearances, Coupling, Monty Python's Flying Circus, My Hero an Blackadder an aw. It whiles coffs the US braidcast richts tae nane-BBC Breetish programmes, sic as Father Ted, The Avengers, an The Saint. The Canadian comedy Trailer Park Boys airs on BBC America an aw.




#Article 162: Wikiquote (221 words)


 is a sister project o Wikipaedia, uisin the same MediaWiki saftware. It is ane o a faimly o wiki-based projecks rin bi the Wikimedia Foondation. Based on a consait bi Daniel Alston an implemented bi Brion Vibber, the aim o the projeck is for fowk ti produce thegither a muckle reference o quotations frae prominent fowk, beuks an saws, an ti gie details anent them. 

Ti stairt wi, the projeck wis aa in English, but fae Julie 2004, mair leids war eikit.

In Julie 2004, aroon 70 subdomains wis set up, but maist o them hinna onie contreibutors. Them ablo are pairts o subdomains that haed been created in Julie 2004: aa o them wis attracted by editors' interest at the time an suin becam active. 

The nummer o active Wikiquote projecks is growing. On January 2005 26 projects for different leids wis active. Here 'active' means the projeck haes mair not the ae legeitimate airticle an ae edit a month. Aifter a sixmonth, 34 projecks are kent ti be active. 

As o the 13 August, 2005, fower projecks hae mair nor 1,000 airticles. The mucklest Wikiquote is the English projeck wi ower 25,000 airticles as o the 4 December, 2015. Neist come the German, French, Polish an Bulgarian projecks. Aboot ten projecks, coontin thae fower, hae mair nor 100 airticles.




#Article 163: Nikola Tesla (124 words)


Nikola Tesla (10 Julie 1856, in Smiljan, Croatie — 7 Januar 1943, in  New York; baptismal name: Nikola) wis a Serbie American inventor, pheesicist, mechanical ingineer, an electrical ingineer. He is aften thocht on as ane o the greatest geniuses o technological oncome.

Tesla is seen as ane o the maist innovative ingineers o the late 1800s an aerlie 1900s. His patents an theoretical wark forms the foonds o modren alternatin current eletric pouer (AC) seestems, includin the polyphase pouer deistribution seestem an AC motor, that he uised for ti stairt the Seicont Industrial Revolution. Nikola Tesla wis o Serb descent an, born in the Austrian Empire (Croatie the day), while conductin his wark in the Unitit States, becam an American ceetizen in 1891.




#Article 164: Christmas (492 words)


Christmas or Yuil day is wan o the maist well-kent Christian halidays. It comes oan 25 Dizember. Fur ordinar, the date that is jaloused as that o Jesus' birth. In Eastren Orthodox Kirks, it is celebratit oan 6 or 7 Januar.

Durin Christmas, a tree is pit up, decoratit wi decorations such as lichts, streamers, an baubles.

The tradeetional Christmas narrative fae the New Testament says thit Jesus wis born in Bethlehem. Whan Mary an Joseph won tae the ceetie, the in didnae hiv ony rooms, an war gien a stable whaur the bairn wis born, wi angels affirmt the news tae shepards. The separds than pit the wird oot aboot it.

See tho the month an date o Jesus' birth isnae kent, the kirk in the early 4t yearhunner pit the date at 25 Dizember. This matches the date o the winter solstice on the Roman calendar. Maist Christians celebrate on 25 Dizember in the Gregorian calendar. This is haes been taen on aw ower in secular calendars uised in kintras oothrou the warld. Hounaiver, some Eastren Christian Kirks celebrate Christmas on 25t Dizember on the aulder Julian calenders, equivalent tae Januar 7 on the Gregorian Calendar.

For Christians, believin thit God came intae the warld as man tae pey fur Humanitie's sins, raither nor kennin Jesus' exact birth day, is seen tae be the primary purpose in delebratin Christmas.

The celebrations performed durin Christmas in sindry kintra ur a mix o pre-Christian, Christian an secular themes an oreegins. 

Faur ben weys o celebratin includin gien gifts; daein an Advent calendar or Advent wreath; Christmas muisic an carolin; seein a Nativity play; Gien Christmas cairds tae wan anither; Kirk services; a special meal; an pittin up sindry Christmas decorations, includin Christmas lichts, Nativity scenes, garlands, wreaths, mistletoe an holly.

As weel as that, twa-three closely relatit an aftern interchangable feegurs, kent as Santae Claus, Faither Christmas, Caunt Nicholas, an Christkind, ur associatit wi gien gifts tae bairns durin Yule, maistly Christmas Eve. Thay hiv thair ain lot o tradeetions an lair.

Giein gifts an money ither pairts o the Chrstmas festival cause the economic acteevity tae rise, acause o this, the haily haes turnt intae a muckle event an a key sales period fur retailers an businesses. The economic impact fae Christmas haes grawn mair ower the past twa-three yearhunner in mony pairts in the warld.

The gospels o Luke an Matthew pit Jesus as bein born in Bethlehem tae Virgin Mary. In Luke, Joseph an Mary won fae Nazareth til Bethlehem fur the census, an Jesus is born thare an pit doun in a manger. Anglens affirmt him as the body tae hain aw fowk, an shepards came aboot tae adore him.

Matthew pits in thit tha magi follaw a star til Bethlehem tae gie gifts tae Jesus, born tae bnot twa year old in Bethlehem, but the familie gits awa til Egypt an returns back til Nazareth later on.




#Article 165: Leonhard Euler (165 words)


Leonhard Euler [oi'lər] (15 Aprile 1707–18 September 1783) wis a Swiss mathematician an pheesicist. He is thocht ti be ane o the finest mathematicians that ivver leived. Leonhard Euler wis the first til uise the wird function (defined bi Leibniz in 1694) ti descreive an expression makkin uiss o various arguments; i.e., y = F(x). He is credited wi bein ane o the first til applee calculus ti pheesics.

Born an bred in Basel, he wis a mathematical child prodigy. He worked as a professor o mathematics in St. Petersburg, an aifter in Berlin, an then cam back ti St. Petersburg. He is the maist proleific mathematician bar nane, his collected wark fullin 75 volumes. He dominated the mathematics o the 1700s an worked oot mony consequences o the neow inventit calculus. He wis blind for the hindmaist seventeen year o his life, a time whan he produced near on hauf o aa his wark.

An asteroid haes been cried 2002 Euler in his honour.




#Article 166: Pape John XIV (123 words)


John XIV (dee'd Augist 20, 984), Pape frae 983 tae 984, successor tae Benedict VII, wis born at Pavia, an afore his hystin tae the papal chair wis imperial chancellor o Otto II, an wis the latter's seicont chyce.

His oreeginal name wis Peter, but he chynged it tae evite bein likent wi St.Peter hissel.

Otto dee'd short syne aifter his election; his heir, Otto III bein juist 3 year auld. Antipape Boniface VII, on the strenth o the strang feelin agin the new pape, cam back fae frae Constantinople an sent John tae the jyle, in Castel Sant'Angelo, whaur he dee'd aither fae hunger or pushion.

Dee'd on Augist 20t, 984; Papes Benedict XIV an Pius X baith dee'd on Augist 20t.




#Article 167: Saunt Peter (558 words)


Saunt Peter, kent as Simon Peter (? - c.64 AD) an aw, wis ane o the twal disciples o Jesus, wha wis ane o the heidmaist leaders o the early Christian kirk. Gin unco auld tradeetion is richt, he wis the first Bishop o Roum, an it wis in Roum that he wis mairtyrt

(Aw Biblical quotes hae been taen frae W.L Lorimer's translate)

It is probable that he wis first cried Shimon Ben-Yonah, or aiblins Shimion Bar-Yonah (baith is Ebreu, meanin Simon son o John). Gaun bi The Gospel o John, Jesus gied him the name Cephas, meanin Rock that in Greek is Petros, Laitinised as Peter. He cried him this syne he said that Peter wis the rock that he wad big his kirk o the Yird on.

It isna kent whan Peter wis born, tho it seems he cam frae Bethsaida, no faur frae Capernaum, alang wi his brither Andra, Philip, an aiblins James an John. He wrocht as a fisherman wi his brither, until Jesus cawed thaim tae follae him - his first disciples. The Gospel o Matthew gies the follaein acoont:

The fower Gospels aw gies Peter's name first in thair leets o disciples, an thay gie the impression that he wis ane o the heidmaist disciples e'en while Jesus wis aye wi thaim on the yird. He wis heidstrang, an commeetit tae Jesus' cause. Efter Jesus wis liftit, Peter follaed his captors intil Jerusalem (lik as no tae get mair wittins anent whit wad happent tae Jesus), but while thare, three times he threapit that he didna ken Jesus, as Jesus haed telt him he wad. The Gospels records that efter Jesus cam bak til the yird in life, he forgae Peter, an chairged him til leuk efter his hirsel (i.e. tae lead the kirk).

The beuk Acts o the Apostles records that efter Jesus wis taen back up til Heiven, Peter effectivley becam the leader o the kirk in Jerusalem, tho the ither Apostles, sic as Philip, an syne Paul wis unco important an aw, specially Paul. It wis Peter that gied the speech recordit in Acts 2 that is seen bi mony fowk as the stairtin pynt o the Christian Kirk. At some pynt he gaed til Roum, aiblins tae be wi Paul, tho this canna be pruiven. Early tradeetion hauds that thare he becam the first Bishop o Roum.

Whan Nero begoud his persecution o Christians, mony o the Kirk's leaders in Roum wis incarcerate or execute. It seems that Peter wis ane o them that wis execute, maist likely in 64AD, aiblins bi crucifiction, as wis Jesus. Auld-threaps hauds that he speired gin he coud be execute bi bein crucifee'd tapsalteerie, syne he felt he wisna wirthy tae dee efter the same cast as his Laird, an this wis grantit; tho mony scholars dinna jalouse that this is likely.

Syne Jesus telt Peter he wad big his kirk on the yird on him, an syne he becam ane o the heidmaist leaders o the Kirk, Peter is aften seen as haudin the keys tae the Yetts o Heiven - as is aften pictured daen sae in warks o airt.

The Feast Day o Saunt Peter in the Roman Catholic Kirk is the 29t o Juin, alang wi Saunt Paul. Peter is patron saunt o fishermen amang ither treds.




#Article 168: Pape Pius VII (104 words)


Pius VII, O.S.B., born Giorgio Barnaba Luigi Chiaramonti (Augist 14t, 1742 – Augist 20t, 1823), wis Pape fae Mairch 14t, 1800 tae Augist 20t, 1823.

Chiaramonti wis born at Cesena intil a bien Italian familie. He wis eddicatit in Ravenna afore jynin the Benedictine prattick in 1756 tae conteena his studies. He syne became a dominine in the prattick. His career becam a series o swipper promotions follaein the election o a familie freend, Giovanni Braschi, as Pape Pius VI. Pius trystit him abbot o San Callisto in Roum in 1776 an aifter makkin him a bishop makkit him a cairdinal in Februar 1785.




#Article 169: Didsbury (132 words)


Didsbury is a suburb in Manchester in north-wast Ingland. It is aboot sax mile sooth o the mids o Manchester lyin on baith sides o the gate sooth tae Wilmslow. The airt is maistly populate bi collegianers an the commonality's families an is hiechly socht in the haudin mercat.

The area is spleet intae the twa wairds o Manchester Ceity Cooncil Didsbury Aest an Didsbury Wast.

The area is for ordnar conseidered ti be atween the River Mersey tae the south, Princess Parkway tae the wast, Kingsway tae the east, and Lapwing Lane/Fog Lane tae the north. Bi wey o the 2001 Census, Didsbury haed a population o 14,292. O this figure, 87.64% recognise thairsels as White, 7.77% as Asian/Asian British, 1.28% Bleck/Bleck British, and 1.26% as Chinese or anither ethnic minoritie.




#Article 170: Scotched English (201 words)


Scotched English is (for ordinar) Staundart Inglis that's been buskit for tae mak it leuk lik Scots. This can come aboot in twa-three weys.

It micht juist coud be an affcome o the fact that maist native Scots-speakers haes anerly iver been teached hou tae write English an that gars thaim stap thair ain Scots intae the haud an bind o Staundart Inglis grammar an eediom. 

The fowk scrievin isna native Scots-speakers.  Whan scrievin thay're thinkin in Inglis an juist chynge the lexemes an spellins o the Inglis model in thair heids. Anither form o this is whaur an Inglis screed is taen as a foond an the selsame chyngin o lexemes an spellins is duin wi't.

Aften wirds is howkit fae dictionars an uised oot o context or fowk clecks idiosyncratic lexemes, eedioms, morphological elements or syntactic structurs that's taen fae or foondit on Inglis an isna a pairt o Scots, syne uisin thaim whaur Scots wad hae an exeestin authentic hamelt mak o its ain. That for ordinar comes aboot acause o the want o ken o Scots on the pairt o the scriever.

It whiles comes aboot acause the Scots dialect o the writer is awfu Englifee'd onywey.




#Article 171: Eurovision Sang Contest 1972 (121 words)


The Euroveesion Sang Contest 1972 wis the 17t edeetion o the lang-rinnin televeesion competeetion, an wis hauden in the Usher Hall in Edinburrie on Mairch 25t, 1972. It is the ae time up til nou that the competeetion haes been hauden in Scotland. The presenter wis Moira Shearer. The tap sang, waled at the end o the nicht bi a puckle fowk fae athort Europe, wis Luxembourg's Après toi (French for 'efter ye'), bi Vicky Leandros.

The sang fae the hame kintra (the Unitit Kinrick, acause Scotland wisna - an still isna - able tae pit a sang forrit til the competeetion in its ain richt) wis Beg, Steal or Borrow bi the New Seekers, an it cam a guid seicont.




#Article 172: Carl Friedrich Gauss (115 words)


Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (Gauß) (30 Aprile, 1777 – 23 Februar, 1855) wis a German mathematician an scientist that eikit muckle ti monie fields, like nummer theory, analysis, deifferential geometry, geodesy, magnetism, astronomy an optics. Whiles kent as the preince o mathemateicians, Gauss haed a profoond influence on monie fields o mathematics an science an is rankit alangside Euler, Newton an Archimedes as ane o history's greatest mathemateicians.

Gauss wis a child prodigy an made his first grund-brakkin mathematical discoveries whan yet a youngker. He feinished Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, his magnum opus, at the age o twinty-fower. This wark wis fundamental in consolidatin nummer theory as a deiscipline an haes shapit the field til the day.




#Article 173: Bress (121 words)


Bress is an alloy o copper an zinc. For ordinar it is mair nor 50% copper. Some types o bress is cried bronzes, mauger thair heich zinc content.

Bress or Bres is the Gaelic god o healing, fertility an agriculture. Bres wis an aa the name o the Fomorian prince who became the first king o the united Tylweth Teg, wi his consort Brigid.

Bress is a polite wey o defining something's excellence, wioot uisin harsh (the shit) or potty language (the tits). Example: This IPA is the bress. Syne its conception, 'bress' haes been uised in a diluted form as a replacement for the wird 'best'. Tho nae wholly backed bi the Bress Buird, the substitution is still quite common.




#Article 174: Pape Alexander II (155 words)


Alexander II, né Anselmo Baggio (d. Aprile 21, 1073), pape fae 1061 tae 1073, wis a bairn o Milan. As bishop o Lucca he haed been a fersle coadjutor wi Hildebrand in ettlin tae smuir simony, an tae gar the clergy haud the Cœlibat. His election, that Hildebrand haed redd in conformitie wi the decern o 1059 (see Pape Nicholas II), wis nae greed wi bi the imperial coort o Germany. This coort, true tae the haunt observed bi it in the afore gaun elections, homologated anither candidate, Cadalus, bishop o Parma, that wis cried bi the cooncil o Basel unner the name o Honorius II, mairched tae Roum, an for a lang time thraitent his rival's poseetion. At lenth, houaniver, he wis forleetit bi the Germanic coort an deponed bi a cooncil hauden at Mantua; an Alexander's poseetion baud unchailenged. Alexander wis follaed bi his associate Hildebrand, that takkit the teitle o Gregory VII.




#Article 175: Pape Agapetus I (120 words)


Agapetus I, or Agapitus I, Pape (535–536), wis the son o Gordian, a priest that haed been ennit in throu the gilravages in the days o Pape Symmachus.

He thegither wi Cassiodorus biggit a leebrarie in Rome o ecclesiastical owthors in the Greek an Laitin, an helpit Cassiodorus wi the project at Vivarium o pittin the staundart Greek philosophers ower intil Laitin.

King Theodahad o the Ostrogoths sent him on an legetion tae Constantinople, tae slock Emperor Justinian I follaein the daith o Amalasuntha. Thare, he flytit the patriarch Anthimus I anent the Monophysite heresy, an haein taen him in flyte, deponed the patriarch an ordeenit Menas his successor. He dee'd no lang efter, on the 22nt o Aprile, 536.




#Article 176: Pape Caius (106 words)


Saunt Caius or Gaius wis Pape frae 283 til his daith in 296. He wis the son o Gaius, or, bi St.Susanna o Concordius wey o it, kin o the emperor Diocletian, an becam Pape on 17 December 283. His tomb, wi the origeenal epitaph, wis diskivered in the catacombs o Calixtus an in it the raing that he uised as a selkie  fae his letters (see Arringhi, Roma subterr., 1. iv. c. xlviii. p. 426).

His eatis on Aprile 22, thegither wi Pape Soter. Saunt Caius is shawn in airt kirtelt in the Papal Tiara wi Saunt Nereus. He is veneratit in Dalmatia an Venice.




#Article 177: Orkney (247 words)


Orkney is ane o 32 cooncil areas in Scotland. Orkney is made up o 70 ilands 16 km north o Caithness in northren Scotland. The maist mukkil iland is caad the Mainland; juist 20 is populatit.

Orkney's heidtoun is Kirkwaa on the Mainland, hame ti St Magnus' Cathedral, wi aboot 6,000 fowk an a mukkil port. The anerlie ither burgh is Strumnis at the wast end o the Mainland, wi 2,000 fowk bydin thar. The thrid maist mukkil sattilment is The Hop on Sooth Ronaldsay.

The maist mukkil iland in Orkney is kent as the Mainland. Aa the ither ilands can be clessifee'd as north o sooth o the Mainland. The ilands north o the Mainland is kent as the North Isles, wi thaim til the sooth kent as the Sooth Isles. Sule Skerry an Sule Stack is 60 km wast o the ither Orkneys, but is pairt o the cooncil area.

Maist o the ilands caad holms is gey smaa.

Frequent ferrie services operates on the follaein routes:

Maist o the mukkil ilands haes thair ain airfeild or airstrip.  operates raigular servises ti sax ilands fae Kirkwaa. Thir include the cuttiest skeduled air serviss in the warld, atwein the ilands o Westray an Papa Westray. The flicht taks twa meinits' but can tak less nor a meinit gin the wind is blawin in the richt airt.

The aulder Norn wis replacit bi the Scots leid that itsel is bein replacit bi Scottish Inglis.

Sum weil-kent Orcadians:




#Article 178: Aiberdeen (750 words)


Aiberdeen (Inglis: Aberdeen; Scots Gaelic: Obar Dheathain) is Scotland's third burgh, wi fowk nummerin 212,125. It is eh main toon an port o the North-East o Scotland.

It his the teename o The Oil Capital Of Europe thanks til the muckle supply o crude ayl in the North Sea. It sits oan the coast o the North Sea, atween the mous o the Don an the Dee.  Aiberdeen is een o the 32 cooncil areas o Scotland, offeecially kent as the City of Aberdeen.

The Aiberdeen Coat o Airms is makkit up wi twa leopards haudin a reid shield wi three wee castles oan it.

The motto o Aiberdeen is Bon Accord.

The Aberdeen area his seen humans bidin for mair than 8,000 year. The burgh stertit as twa separate touns: Auld Aiberdeen at the mooth o the river Don; an New Aiberdeen, a fishin toun, far the Denburn watterway entered the Dee estuary. The earliest charter wis grantit by William the Lion in 1179 an confirmed the corporate richts grantit by David I. In 1319, The Great Chairter o Robert the Bruce transformit Aiberdeen intae a financially independent toun. Grantit wi it wis the nearby Forest o Stocket, fas income formed the basis for the burghs Common Guid Fund fit still benefits Aiberdonians.
I the Wars o Scots Independence, Aiberdeen wis under Inglis rule, sae Robert the Bruce laid siege tae Aiberdeen Castle afore destroyin it in 1308, follaed bi the massacrin o the Inglis garrison. The burgh wis burnt bi Edward III o Ingland in 1336, but wis rebiggit an extendit. The burgh wis strangly fortified tae stoap attacks bi nearby lairds, but the yetts were removit bi 1770.

I the Wars o the Three Kinricks o 1644–1647 the burgh wis plunderit bi baith sides. In 1644, it wis taen an destroyit bi Royalist troops efter the Battle o Aiberdeen an twa year later it wis stormit bi a Royalist force unner the command o the Marquis o Huntly. In 1647 an ootbreak o bubonic plague killit a quarter o the population. I the 18th century, a new Toun Hoose wis biggit an the first social services appearit wi the Infirmary at Woolmanhill in 1742 an the Lunatic Asylum in 1779. The cooncil began major road improvements at the end o the 18t century wi the main throogings o George Street, King Street an Union Street aw completit at the stert o the 19t century.

The expensive infrastructur warks led tae the burgh acomin bankrupt in 1817 in the Post-Napoleonic depression, an economic dounturn immediately efter the Napoleonic Wars; but the ceety's prosperity later recoverit. The increasin economic importance o Aiberdeen an the development o the shipbiggin an fishin industries led tae the biggin o the present haven includin Victoria Dock an the Sooth Brakwatter, an the extension o the North Pier. Gas street lichts cam in 1824, an enhanced watter supply cam in 1830 fan watter wis pumpit frae the Dee tae a reservoir in Union Place. An unnergrund sewer system replacit apen sewers in 1865. The burgh wis incorporatit in 1891. Although Auld Aiberdeen haes a separate history an still his its auld chairter, it isna offeecially independent noo. It is an integral pairt o the burgh, as is Woodside an the Royal Burgh o Torry tae the sooth o the River Dee.

St Machar Cathedral is a Presbyterian Kirk in Aiberdeen.

Aberdeen haes twa varsities, the auncient Varsity o Aiberdeen, an Robert Gordon Varsity, a modren varsity eften referred tae as RGU. Aberdeen's student rate o 11.5% is heicher nor the naitional average o 7%.

The fuid - butteries (butter rolls), stovies (mince, tatties, mirrans, ingins), buckies, Aiberdeen Angus beef etc.

Aiberdeen his many brigs, the maist weel-kent is the Brig o Dee an the Brig o Don.

Aiberdeen Haven haes served the ile industry asweel as the fishin industry

In 1396 the population wis aboot 3,000 fowk. By 1801 it hid grown tae 26,992. In 1841 it wis 63,262; in 1891 121,623; in 1901 153,503; in 2001 it wis 197,328.

Aiberdeen Fitbaw Club wis foondit in 1903. Its major success wis winnin the European Cup Winners Cup in 1983 an three league Championships atween 1980 an 1986, unner the management o Alex Ferguson, also former Manchester United F.C. manager. The club's stadium is Pittodrie at hauds the honour o bein Breetain's first aw-seatit stadium an first wi a dugoot.

Aiberdeen is twinn'd wi several burghs athort Europe an aa roond the world. This includes:




#Article 179: 29 Februar (130 words)


The 29t o Februar is the 60t day o a lowp year in the Gregorian Calendar, wi 306 days ti come.

The 29t o Februar occurs in years divisible bi 4 (sic as 2016 or 2020), acause the year is slichtly langer than 365 days, an in century years divisible bi 400 (sic as 1600 or 2000). The Julian calendar incluidit this date every century year, leadin tae the introduction o the Gregorian calendar in Roman Catholic kintras in 1582, an in the Breetish Empire in 1752. Ither kintras did sae much later.

It is said tae be tradeetional on this date for weemen tae propose marriage tae men. Fowk born on this date are said tae be leaplings an celebrate on 28 Februar or 1 Mairch in ither years.




#Article 180: Saunt Emma (186 words)


Saunt Emma (ca. 975-980 ndash; 3 December 1038) wis a German noblewumman an Christian saunt endue tae her beneficence. Emma wis jaloused tae be fae strynd o the legendar wild Widukind, an her mither wis a wumman cried Adela. Emma hersel wis kent for bein temperamental an pauchtie,  as veeolent an aw. Emma mairiet the sonsefu Coont Ludger an haed a son cried Imad. Her brither, Meinwerk, wis bishop o Paderborn, an Imad wis later bishop o the same see.

Coont Ludger dee'd aboot 1010, an Emma, nou a chynged sowel, gracied the lave o her life tae ser. She wared her fortuin biggin kirks an monasteries in the See o Bremen. Her guid wirks wis legendar. She is conseedert tae hae dee'd c. 1050. Efter her daith, a cultus developed aboot her, an her graff wis opened for translation o her relics efter she wis canonized. Whan the tomb wis opened, her bodie haed mirled tae smurach cept for her richt haund. That relic wis placed in the abbey o Saunt Ludger at Verden.

Her feast day in the Roman Catholic Kirk is 19 Aprile.




#Article 181: Nun (150 words)


A nun is the female equeevalent o a monk in the Catholic Kirk. Maist nuns bides in a Nunnery or an Abbey.

In general, whan a wumman enters a convent she first unnergangs an initial period o life-test for a period frae sax month tae a year. Gif she, an the ordair, determine that she micht hae a vocation  tae the life, she receives the uisual-tak o the ordair (uisually wi som modification tae distinguish her frae professit nuns) an unnertaks the novitiate, a period (that lests ane tae twa year) o livin the life o a nun withoot yet takkin hechts. Apon completion o this period she mey tak her initial, temporar hechts. Temporar hechts lest ane tae thrie years, teepically, an will be professed for nae less nor three year an nae mair nor sax.
Finally, she will petition tae mak her perpetual profession, takkin permanent, solemn vows.




#Article 182: Saunt Rose o Lima (106 words)


Saunt Rose o Lima, née Isabel Flores de Oliva, (30 Aprile 1586 - 30 August 1617), the first Catholic saunt o The Americaes, wis born in Lima, Peru an is the patroness o Peru, The Americas, the Philippines an the ceety o Sittard. She teuk the name o Rose at her confirmation. She gat Haly Communion daily, an wis conferrt that prattick o St. Dominic at the age o 20. The Catholic Kirk says that monie (halie) ferlies follaed her daith. Aw the places cried Santa Rosa in the New Warld gies mense tae this saunt. Pape Benedict XVI haes a byous devotion for this Saunt.




#Article 183: Matthew Fitt (135 words)


Matthew Fitt is a scriever in the Scots leid. He wis born in Dundee in 1968, an his warks includes But'n'Ben A-Go-Go (a cyberpunk beuk), Kate O'Shanter's Tale (a pastiche o Robert Burns' Tam O'Shanter, seen frae his wife's pynt o view), an mony warks for bairns in the Itchy Coo series. Asides that, he editit the Smoky Smirr o Rain, an anthology o Scots poetry fae mony Scots scrievers an aw. 

He uisst tae be the writer in residence at Greater Pollok in Glesga, but he's National Scots Language Development Officer the nou.

Forby thon he's written the lyrics for the Scots entry for Liet Lavlut 2007, Icker in A Thrave. The tuin wis written bi Simon Thoumire, an performed bi Mairi Campbell (sangin), Kevin Mackenzie (guitar), Clare McLaughlin (fiddle) an Simon Thoumire (concertina).




#Article 184: Kurt Gödel (236 words)


Kurt Gödel [kurt gøːdl], (28 Aprile, 1906 – 14 Januar, 1978) wis a logeician, mathemateician, an philosopher o mathematics. He wis born in Brünn in Moravia, Austrick-Hungary (nou Brno in the Czech Republic), becam a Czechoslovak ceitizen at 12 year auld whan the Austro-Hungarian empire wis broke up, an an Austrian ceetizen at 23 year auld. Whan Hitler teuk Austria, Gödel automatically becam a German ceetizen at 32 year auld. Aifter World War II, at 42 year auld, he got US ceitizenship.

Gödel's best kent warks wis his incompleteness theorems, the maist kenspeckle o them seyin that ony sel-conseestent recursive axiomatic seistem wi eneuch pouer ti descreive integer arithmetic maun allou for true proposeitions anent integers that canna be proven frae the axioms. For tae pruive this theorem, Gödel wrocht oot a technique nou kent as Gödel nummerin, that codes formal expressions intil arithmetic. Forby he did kenspeckle wirk on the continuum hypothesis, shawin that it canna be dispruiven frae the accepit set theory axioms, assumin that thae axioms is conseestent.
Gödel made important contreibutions ti pruif theory; he clarifee'd the connections atween clessical logic, intuitionistic logic an
modal logic bi definin translations atween them.

Kurt Gödel wis aiblins the greatest logeician o the 1900s an ane o the three greatest logeicians ivver wi Aristotle an Frege. He published his maist important result in 1931 at 25 year auld whan he wrocht at Vienna Varsity, Austria.




#Article 185: Maxwell Kane (106 words)


Maxwell Max Kane is the unreliable narrator o twa bairns' beuks, Freak the Mighty an its sequel, Max the Mighty. His faither is in jyle acause he killed (Max's) mither. Max bides wi his mither's parents, Gram an Grim.
Rachel hoys him as a hero an calls him Max the Mighty. Others think he is mean, lik his faither, but he wouldn't hurt a flee.

Max uised tae hae a friend named Kevin Freak Dillon, but Freak died in the first beuk.

Freak the Mighty wis the grund o a Golden Globe-nomination picture teitelt juist The Mighty. In the picture, he is played bi Elden Henson.




#Article 186: Fowk on Clydesdale Bank notes (328 words)


Thir is the fowk on Clydesdale Bank notes, denominatit in poonds sterling:

Robert Burns, the makar, wi a field-moose an wull rose, promptit bi twa o his maist weel-likit poems, 'To a Mouse' an 'A Red, Red Rose'.

Mary Slessor, the missionary tae Wast Africae. Thare is an illustration o Slessor's wark in Calabar (Nigerie) includin a cairt o the aurie an a lithographic vignette shawin her wark wi bairn.

Robert the Bruce, a Scots warrior an King, that successfully focht tae free Scotland fae the Inglis King. On the rear o this note is a representation o the statue tae Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn (the steid o a defeat o the airmie o King Edward I o Ingland in 1314), the Monymusk reliquary, Stirling Castle an the moniment tae William Wallace. The Clydesdale Bank haes forbye makkit a commemorative £20 note tae merk the Commonweel Heids o Govrenment forgaitherin in Edinburgh in October 1997. On the hintside is shawn the Edinburgh Internaitional Conference Centre whaur the forgaitherin wis hauden an the naurby Clydesdale Bank Plaza.

In 1999, for tae merk Glesca's foys as UK Ceity o Architecture an Design, Clydesdale Bank issued a £20 wi a limn o Alexander Greek Thomson, ane o the ceity's weel-kent airchitects. On the hintside o the note is a drawn picter o the Lichthoose biggin designed bi anither Glesca airchitect, Charles Rennie Mackintosh, alang wi a representation o the dome in Holmwid Hoose, anither ensaumple o Greek Thomson's wark.

Adam Smith, the economist an owthor o The Wealth of Nations. On the hintside is a montage o aichteent centurie ingineerin an agricultural warkins wi Kirkcaedy Herbour in the backgrund.

Laird Kelvin, the resaircher an clecker. He is shawn wi the bettered mariner's airt whilk he cleckit an a cairt wi the wey o the first commercially sonsefu transatlantic cable; Laird Kelvin wis the ingineer in chairge o the project. On the hintside o the note is his varsity lectur room.




#Article 187: David Hilbert (732 words)


David Hilbert (23 Januar 1862 – 14 Februar 1943) wis a German mathemateician born in Wehlau, bi Königsberg, Prussie (nou Znamensk, bi Kaliningrad, Roushie) that is kent as ane o the maist influential mathemateicians o the late 1800s an aerlie 1900s. His ain discoveries themsels wad hae gien him that repute, yet it wis his leadership in mathematics aa throu his hindmaist years that disteinguishes him. He haed a professorship in mathematics at the Varsity o Göttingen for maist o his life.

Hilbert solved a wheen important problems in the theory o invariants. Hilbert's basis theorem solved the kenspeckle problem in nineteent century invariant theory bi shawin that onie form o a particlar nummer o variables an o a gien degree haes a finite, but full seestem o independent raitional integral invariants an covariants.

Forbye he unifee'd the field o algebraic nummer theory wi his 1897 treatise Zahlbericht (report on nummers).

Weel kent for his abeility ti mak discoveries in monie mathematical fields, Hilbert gaed on ti provide the first correct an full axiomatisation o Euclidean geometry ti pit in place o Euclid's axiomatisation o geometrie, in his 1899 beuk Grundlagen der Geometrie (Foonds o Geometrie). See Hilbert's axioms.

Forbye he laid the foonds o functional analysis bi studyin integral equations an formulatin a first version, in terms o quadratic forms in infinitely monie variables, o whit wad be cried Hilbert space. This wark turned oot in the 1920s ti be foondational for quantum mechanics.

His interest in pheesics, in the decade 1900-1910, wisna sae important as later contacts wi Albert Einstein an formulations o general relativity that holped its mathematical respectabeility (see Einstein-Hilbert action an aa).

Hilbert holped ti provide the basis for the theory o automata that wis later biggit upon bi computer scientist Alan Turing.

He pit forth a maist influential leet o 23 unsolved problems at the Internaitional Congress o Mathemateicians in Paris in 1900. This is maistlins reckoned the maist successfu an deeply conseidered compilation o open problems ivver ti be produced bi the ae mathemateician.

Ower an abuin that Hilbert's wark anteicipated an asseistit a puckle advances in the mathematical formulation o quantum mechanics. Thir includes his introduction o Hilbert space, an Hermann Weyl's pruif o the mathematical equeevalence o Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics an Erwin Schrödinger's wave equation.

His paradox o the Gran Hotel, a thocht on unco properties o the infinite, is aften uised in popular accoonts o infinite cairdinal nummers.

In 1920 he proponed explicitly a research project (in metamathematics, as it was then cried) that becam kent as Hilbert's programme. He wantit mathematics ti be formulatit on a solit an full logical foondation. He believed that in preenciple this cuid be duin, by shawing that: 

There seems ti hae been baith technical an psychological raesons that he formulated this propone. It pruived his scunner at whit haed become kent as the ignorabimus, yet an aictive issue at his time in German thocht, that cuid be follaed back in that formulation ti Emil du Bois-Reymond.

This programme is recognisable yet in the maist popular philosophy o mathematics, amang wirkin mathemateicians that is, maistlins cried formalism. For exemplar, the Bourbaki group adoptit a milk-an-watter version o it as guid eneuch for the requirements o their twin projects o (a) writin encyclopaedic foondational warks, an (b) uphaudin the axiomatic method as a research tuil. 

Houaniver Gödel's incompleteness theorem shawed in 1931 that Hilbert's grand plan wisna possible, as statit. The pynt 2 canna be combined with the pynt 1 in onie reasonable gate, sae lang as the axiom system is raelly finitary.

Saidly for Hilbert, he leeved ti see the end o the kenspeckle mathematical dynasty at the Varsity Göttingen, as the Nazis ruitit oot monie o the kenspeckle faculty members in 1933.

Aboot a year aifter the clair-oot, he gaed til a banquet, an was saeted neist ti the neow Meinister o Eddication, Bernhard Rust. Rust speirt, Is't richt, Professor, that yer institute suffert sae muckle at the depairtin o the Jews an their freends? Hilbert answert, Suffert? Na, na, Herr Minister, it didna suffer. It juist nae langer exeists.

Bi the time Hilbert dee'd in 1943, the Nazis haed mair-or-less guttit the varsity, as monie o the tap faculty wis aither Jewish or haed mairiet Jews. His funeral wis attendit bi feower nor a dizzen fowk, juist twa o them bein fellae academics.




#Article 188: Miss Youghal's Sais (105 words)


Miss Youghal's Sais is a story, oreeginally furthset in Rudyard Kipling's Plain Tales from the Hills. Hit follaes a chiel cried Strickland wha is descreived in the beuk as the ae man in Indea that coud pass for baith Hindu or Mohamedan. The ae thing is, he is smitten wi a wumman cried Rachel. In the storie he taks the furm o a Sais, an leuks aifter Rachel. He anerly gies  hissel awa whan he gies a genteel that wis flirtin wi her a verbal threshin. The genteel, sae taen wi his disguise, lauchs says he desers the threshin, an helps him mairy on Rachel.




#Article 189: Vectis National Party (114 words)


The Vectis National Party (Vectis Naitional Pairtie) wis a smaa poleetical pairtie operatin in the Isle o Wight in the Unitit Kinrick in the aerlie 1970s. Foondit in 1969 thay socht the same status for Wight as the Isle o Man haes (that is Croun dependency status). Thay wis motivate bi the fact that thay thocht the sale o the Isle o Wight tae the Inglis croun in 1293 wisna richt bi the constitution.

Thay stuid for the Isle o Wight constituency in the 1970 general election gat 1,607 votes (2.8% o the Wight vote). The follaein year thay naur-haud won a local govrenment election, but bi the mid-1970s the pairtie wis nae mair.




#Article 190: Nicola Sturgeon (632 words)


Nicola Ferguson Sturgeon (born 19 Julie 1970) is the current First Meenister o Scotland an leader o the Scots National Pairty (SNP), in office syne 20t November 2014. An Sturgeon wis the Deputy First Meenister frae 2007 tae  2014. She is the furst wuman tae haud aither poseetion, and is the fifth First Meenister. Sturgeon haes been a memmer o the Scots Pairlament syne 1999, first as an addeetional memmer for the Glesga electoral region frae 1999 tae 2007, an as the memmer for Glasgow Soothside syne 2007 (kent as Glesga Govan frae 2007 tae 2011).

A law graduate o the Varsity o Glesga, Sturgeon wirked as a solicitor in Glesga. Efter bein electit tae the Scots Pairlament, she served successively as the SNP's shadae meenister for eddication, heal an juistice. In 2004 she annoonced that she wad staund as a candidate for the SNP leadership follaein the resignin o John Swinney. Hounaiver, she later widrew frae the contest in favour o Alex Salmond, staundin insteid as depute leader on a jynt ticket wi Salmond.

Baith war subsequently electit, an as Salmond wis still an MP in the Hoose o Commons, Sturgeon led the SNP in the Scots Pairlament frae 2004 tae 2007. The SNP won the heichest nummer o seats in the Scots Pairlament in the 2007 election an Salmond wis subsequently appyntit First Meenister. He appyntit Sturgeon as Depute First Meenister an Cabinet Secretar for Heal an Wellbein. She wis appyntit as Cabinet Secretar for Infrastructur, Investment an Ceeties in 2012.

Follaein the defeat o the Yes campaign in the 2014 Scots unthirldom referendum, Salmond annoonced that he wad be resignin as pairty leader at the SNP pairty conference that November, an wad resign as First Meenister efter a new leader wis chysen. Naebody else wis nominatit for the post bi the time nominations closed, leavin Sturgeon tae tak the party leadership unopponed at the SNP's annual conference. She wis formally electit tae succeed Salmond as First Meenister on 19 November.

Sturgeon led the SNP in the 2015 general election, whaur the SNP teuk 56 of the 59 Scottis seats, thair heichest nummer o seats in the Hoose o Commons o the Unitit Kinrick. Thay teuk ower the Leeberal Democrats as the third maist muckle pairty in Wastmeenster and haed a 30% sweeng fae Labour.

Forbes magazine ranked Sturgeon as the 50t maist pouerfu wumman in the warld in 2016 an 2nt in the Unitit Kinrick. In 2015, BBC Radio 4's Woman's Hour declairt Sturgeon tae be the maist pouerful an influential wumman in the Unitit Kinrick.

The warldwide pandemic o COVID-19 happent durin Sturgeon's seicont term as First Meenister. Tae conteen an limit the nummer o affectit fowk in Scotland, Sturgeon an the Scots Govrenment pit in place measurs thit war advised bi NHS Scotland, stairtin wi mainteenin strict haund washin. The first confirmed case o the virus in Scotland wis annooncit on 1 Mairch 2020, whan a Taysider testit positive. In the days follaein, Sturgeon pit forrit addeetional advice an guidance as the nummer o positive cases increased, but said thit closures o public places sic as schuils an shops wad be leukit intae.

Sturgeon annooncit tae the Scots Pairliament on 18t Mairch thit aw schuils an nurseries in Scotland wad close on 20t Mairch tae try an limit the spreid o the virus. On 23rd Mairch, Sturgeon pit oot a statement, pittin Scotland on a lockdoun, limitin the raisons fur how people micht leave thair hames in an ettlin tae limit the spreid o the virus, tae bield the halth o the population, as weel as tae tak the pressure aff NHS Scotland services an staff. Oothrou 2020, restrictions hiv been adapted tae suit the pairts or aw o Scotland tae respond tae developments in the seetiation.




#Article 191: Alex Salmond (150 words)


Alex Salmond, born Hogmanay (31 December 1954), is a Scots politician an wis the convener o the Scots Naitional Pairtie afore Nicola Sturgeon. He haudit that position atween 2007 an 2014 for the seicont time, efter haein been convener atween 1990 an 2000.

He wis born in Lithgae, bit nou bides in Strichen.

He wis First Meenister o Scotland atween 2007 an 2014, headin a minority govrenment until 2011, an a majority govrenment until his demission in 2014, efter the Scots unthirldom referendum, 2014. He wis Leader o the Scottis Naitional Pairtie (SNP), an member o Pairlament for the constituency o Aiberdeenshire East. He wis electit tae the Wastmeenster Pairlament in 2015, as the SNP teuk 56 o 59 Scots seats thare. He wis defeatit in the 2017 general election.

An 29t August 2018, he resigned frae the SNP.

In Januar 2019, Salmond wis liftit efter accusations o sexual assault.




#Article 192: Disney's Sequoia Lodge (100 words)


The Disney's Sequoia Lodge Hotel at the Disneyland Resort Paris in Marne-la-Vallée, Fraunce is a leisur o a wilderness dern , designed tae gie thochts o thae teepically foond in American naitional pairks. The feck ludge whilk leuks athort Lake Disney tae the Disney Village area is hame tae monie o the 1011 veesitor's chaumers. Thare ye can forbye find twa restaurants an a hotel howf. Dern ahint this main ludge veesitors can diskiver 6 smawer ludges, 5 o whilk conteen the lave o the chaumers whist  the saxt ludge is hame tae the hotel's soumin baths an leisur faceelities.




#Article 193: Main Street, U.S.A. (189 words)


Main Street, U.S.A. is the first themed laund juist inside the entry tae the mony Magic Kinrick-style pairks rin bi The Walt Disney Company athort the warld. Based on Walt Disney's hametoun o Marceline, Missouri, Main Street, U.S.A. is shapit for tae resemmle the mids o a turn-o-the-centurie (aerlie 1900s) American toun. At Tokyo Disneyland, this pairt is cried World Bazaar.

Ilka Main Street, U.S.A. featurs tracks for a horse-drawn trolley that rins the lenth o't, uised maistly in shaws oot throu the day. The shaps is liggit oot in a style that taks advantage o the fact that fowk tends tae daunder on the richt side o the gate: alang the richt o the gate  (as a veesitor gaes in the pairk) is shaps sellin camera picter, hots, an ither eetems mair  liker tae be coft bi a bodie stairtin his day at the pairk; alang the ither side o the gate is shaps sellin playocks an memorandums an ither eetems mair liker tae be coft whan gaun. Main Street, U.S.A. is hame tae the Town Hall (Toun Hoose) that the veesitor information centre is in an aw.




#Article 194: Disney peen nifferin (166 words)


Disney peen nifferin is the buyin an sellin o collectible peens (gornals) an siclike paraphernalia featurin Disney Chairacters an elements. Peens is selt anerly for a leemitit time; the base price for a peen is US$6.50, but efter bein retired, some can fesh owre US$500 at the likes o eBay. Leemitit edeetions micht stairt at heicher prices.

Peen nifferin haes aye been praisent at Disney pairks but hit wisna till 1998 that Paul Pressler introduced Disney Peen Nifferin at the Disneyland Resort as a mercatin straitegy that the craze stertit gaun. The next year seen hit spreid tae Walt Disney World Resort whaur hit really lowpit forrit, an whaur hit is yit maist weel-likit the day. Sin syne hit haes been raxed tae Disneyland Resort Paris, Tokyo Disney Resort an the Hong Kong Disneyland Resort.

Efter a mercatin drive  in the aerlie 2000s, peen nifferin haes been slawly lossin popularity, speicially at the Disneyland Resort, whaur the focus haes been dramatically chynged tae mainteinance an attractions.




#Article 195: Google (101 words)


 (NASDAQ: GOOG), is a U.S. public corporation, first estaiblisht as a privately-hauden corporation in 1998, that designed an guidit  the Internet Google sairch ingine. Google is heidit at the Googleplex in Muntain View, Californie an haes owre 4,000 wankers in its employ. Dr. Eric Schmidt, ance CEO o Novell, wis cried the Heid Executive Officer whan co-foonder Larry Page teuk his retiral. The company's owerview wab page says Google's ettle is tae sort the warld's ken an caw it tae ane an aw.

Oreeginal Inglis - Google's mission is to organize the world's information and make it universally accessible and useful.




#Article 196: Disney Channel (157 words)


Disney Channel (oreeginally cried The Disney Channel frae 1983 tae 1997 an commonly shortened tae Disney frae 1997 tae 2002) is an American basic cable an satellite televeesion netwark that serves as the flagship property o owner Disney Channels Television Group, itself a unit o the Disney Media Networks division o The Walt Disney Company.

Disney Channel's programmin consists o oreeginal first-run televeesion series, theatrically released an oreeginal made-for-cable movies an select ither third-party programmin. Disney Channel – which formerly operated as a premium service – oreeginally marketed its programs towards families durin the 1980s, an later at younger childer bi the 2000s. A majority o Disney Channel's oreeginal programmin is aimed at childer ages 9–16, while its Disney Junior programs are targeted at childer 8 years an under.

As o Januar 2016, Disney Channel is available tae approximately 93.9 million pay telly households (80.6% o households wi at least ane telly set) in the Unitit States.




#Article 197: Italy (121 words)


Italy  or offeecially the Italian Republic  (Italian: Repubblica Italiana or Italia) is a kintra in the sooth o Europe. It comprises a buit-shapit, peninsula an twa muckle islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily an Sardinia, an shares it's northren alpine mairch wi Monaco, Fraunce, Swisserland, Austrick an Slovenie. The independent kintras o San Marino an the Vatican Ceety is enclaves inouth the Italian Region.

Italy uised ti be tribelaunds, suin bein ringed bi the Latin tribe an foondin the Roman Empire. Efter the faw o Roum, the Italian peninsula brak apairt intae mony fechtin independent kintras. In modren times, Italy comprises o maist o the Italian peninsula, Sicily, an Sardinie.

The Italian Republic is made o 20 regions, five bein autonomous.




#Article 198: Thomsonfly (106 words)


Thomsonfly wis a Breetish airline, previously kent as Britannia an a business athin TUI UK prior tae September 2007.  Follaein TUI UK mergin wi First Choice Holidays in September 2007 it became pairt o TUI Travel PLC.  The new holiday company continued wi baith in-hoose airlines (Thomsonfly an First Choice Airways) through Winter 07 an Simmer 08 housomeivver frae 1 November 2008 it became Thomson Airways. Thomsonfly wis the lairgest chairter airline in the warld, an an' a' operatit scheduled services tae 20 European ceeties. The airline haed several bases includin Birmingham, Bournemouth, Cardiff, Coventry, Glasga, Liverpool, Lunnon Gatwick, Belfast, Lunnon Luton, Manchester, Newcastle an Doncaster-Sheffield.




#Article 199: Wallace &amp; Gromit (222 words)


Wallace and Gromit is the feck chairacters in a series o three Breetish animatit films an a muivin picter bi Nick Park o Aardman Animations. Aw the chairacters wis makkit fae mouldit plasticine on weir frames, an filmed wi stap motion animation.

Wallace bides at 62 West Wallaby Street, wi his dug Gromit. He for ordinar is foond weirin a white day sark, broun oo troosers, green wyve tank tap an reid tie. He loues cheese - rathest  Wensleydale. The thocht o Lancashire hetpat keeps him gaun in a crisis. He enjyes a leisurlie cup o tea or a drib o Bordeaux reid for thir speicial occasions. He reads the Morning Post, the Afternoon Post, an the Evening Post.

He is an inveterate clecker, creatin primpit wheeriorums that aft disna wirk as mynt. He haes a hamelie naitur, an is mebbie a bittie ower weel-hertit.

Gromit bides wi Wallace. His birthday is 12t o Februar. He likes wyvin, readin the wittins blad, his alairm cloak, bane, sooper an framed picter o hissel wi Wallace. He is forbye unco guid wi electric gear (a grommet is a bittie o electric weir insulation, a tairm Nick Park gat fae his brither, an electreecian), an is kittlie, smairt an fendie. He disna express hissel in wirds but his facial expressions—in parteecular his brae  spaeks volumms.




#Article 200: Wallace &amp; Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit (299 words)


Wallace  Gromit: Curse of the Were-Rabbit is a 2005 stap-muivin animatit film, the first featur-lenth Wallace  Gromit film. Hit wis fundit  bi DreamWorks Animation an Aardman Animations, an released bi DreamWorks Pictures. The film wis cawed bi Nick Park an Steve Box an makkit hailie in Breetain. Hit wis released in the Unitit States in October 2005 tae naur-haund universally great scances , includin A ratins fae Roger Ebert an Ty Burr.

The Curse of the Were-Rabbit is in pairt a parody o the grue genre, an conteens monie eimages that parodies or gies mense  tae specifeec grue films. Ane o the telly adverteesements for the film is a montage o thae parody eimages an scenes.

Peter Sallis (the vyce o Wallace) is jyned in the film bi Ralph Fiennes (as Lord Victor Quartermaine), Helena Bonham Carter (as Lady Tottington) an Peter Kay (as PC Mackintosh). Gromit bides lown.

Nick Park telt an interviewer that efter sindry Sey shawinss wi Breetish an American bairns, the picter wis chynged tae tone down some of the British accents and make them speak more clearly so the American audiences could understand it all better .

The machine Wallace caws in the new film is an Austin A35 van. Thegither wi Aardman in the Spring o 2005, a road wirthy replica o the model wis creatit bi the brithers Mark an David Armé, foonders o the International Austin A30/A35 Register, for promotional ettles. In a 500 man oor customisation, an oreeginal 1964 van received a hail bodie restoration afore bein cloured for tae mak a perfit marrae o the smaw van uised in the film. The offeecial litt o the van is Preston Green, named in mense  o Nick Park's hame toun. The name wis waled bi the Airt Director an Mark Armé.




#Article 201: HP Sauce (126 words)


HP Sauce is a condiment, a weel-likit broun gravy makkit in Aston, Birmingham, Ingland. Hit haes a maut veenegar foond mellt wi fruit an yerbs an is for ordinar eaten as an adjunct tae het or haarie savourie fuid, or uised tae kitchen brees an stoves.

The oreeginal receipt for HP Sauce wis cleckit an developit bi F.G. Garton, a grocer fae Nottingham. F.G. Garton's Sauce Manufacturing begoud tae mercat HP Sauce in 1903. Garton cam tae cry the gravy HP acause he haed fand oot that a restaurant in the Hooses o Pairliament haed begoud serin hit. Garton selt the receipt an HP kenmerk for the tot o £150 an the lave o twa-three unpeyed bills tae Edwin Samson Moore.

HP is nou aucht Heinz.




#Article 202: Andrea Corr (121 words)


Andrea Jean Corr, born 17 Mey 1974, is a fowk-pop singer fae the Republic o Ireland.  She comes fae is Dundalk, a toun naur tae the mairch wi Northren Ireland.  The faimlie baund 'the Corrs' conseests o hersel, her twa sisters Caroline an Sharon, an her brither Jim.  

Andrea haes scrieved monie o the band's sangs hersel, whiles in hail an whiles in pairt.  Ane o thae sangs, Breathless, gaed til the verra tap o the Unitit Kinrick chairts in 2000.  The new album Home represents a smaa chynge fae whit haes gane afore in that twa o the sangs is in Irish Gaelic, raither nor Inglis.

Andrea haes been in a puckle films forbye, sic as The Commitments an Evita.




#Article 203: Matterhorn Bobsleds (137 words)


The Matterhorn Bobsleds is an attraction makkit up o twa fleerish roller coasters at Disneyland in Anaheim, Californie. Hit opened in 1959 as ane o sax new major attractions for Tomorrowland. In the 1970s, hit wis offeecially makkit a Fantasyland attraction. Hit is kent as the first tubular fleerish roller coaster in the warld, an wis bug bi coaster bigger Arrow Dynamics an WED Imagineerin.

Thare is a basketba  hauf-coort inside the structur abuin the coaster, naur the heid o the Matterhorn muntain. This coort is really juist a lairge widden fluir whaur the climmers coud speil basketba atween speelin gangs. Hit is no accessible tae oniebodie ense whan the attraction is rinnin, as inner ingate tae the ben is steekit for sauftie raesons. Thare is a cast member rest chaumer inby the muntain at the grund.




#Article 204: Law (176 words)


Law is a seestem o social rules for ordinar enforced throu a set o structurt institutions. Law affects ilkaday life an society in a variety o weys. Contract law regulates awthing frae buyin a bus ticket tae trokin swaptions on a derivatives mercat. Haudin law ootlines richts an obleegations relatit tae buyin, sellin, or rentin real haudin sic as hames an biggins. Trust law applees tae assets hauden for investment, sich as pension fonds. Tort law allous claims for assythment whan somebody or thair haudin is skaithed. If the hairm is creeminalised in a penal code, creeminal law offers means that the state prosecutes an punishes the perpetrator by. Constitutional law provides a framewark for creatin laws, pertectin fowk's human richts, an electin poleetical representatives, while admeenistrative law allous ordinar ceetizens tae chailenge the wey govrenments exerceese pouer. Innernaitional law regulates maiters atween sovring nation-states in awthing frae troke tae the environs tae militar action. The rule o law, wrate the auncient Greek philosopher Aristotle in 350 BC, is better nor the rule o ony indiveedual.




#Article 205: ABC1 (104 words)


ABC1 is a telly chainel fae Disney whilk wis first lenched anerly on the British Digital Terrestrial Television stance Freeview on 27 September, 2004. On 10 December, 2004 hit wis eikit tae Telewest's digital cable onwaitin, an belyve efterhaund on the NTL digital cable onwaitin.

The schedule conseests o American drama, comedy an saip. Thir's mainly fae the ABC netwark, sic as Sports Night an General Hospital. The chainel forbye shaws twa programmes fae sports netwark ESPN whilk is ABC-awned. A feow o hits programmes sic as 8 Simple Rules an Home Improvement are forbye see'n in the UK on the ABC-awned Disney Channel.




#Article 206: Plainstane (152 words)


A plainstane or pavement is a paith, for ordinar makkit oot o concrete (parteecular in the Unitit States), asphalt, brick (parteecular in Europe) or stane, designed for pad traffec an aft rinnin langside a gate. In the 19t centurie an aerlie 20t centurie, thay wis makkit o wid. Widden paiths is yet fund at historic strand locations an in conservation areas for tae protect the laund aneath an aboot, cried boardwalks. 

The name plainstanes comes frae stane slabs that are whiles uised for a pavement whaur a bonnie leuk is required, as in historic toun centres. In ither stances, pre-cast concrete slabs (cried pavin slabs or, less correctly, pavin stanes) is uised. Thir micht be littit or textured for tae resemmle stane.

Pavements is mair likely in modren urban areas, whaur thay micht abut the gate, nor suburban areas, whaur thay are whiles sindry frae the gate bi a tree or green.




#Article 207: Pier (860 words)


A pier is a raised structure, includin bridge an buildin supports an walkways, ower watter, teepically supportit bi widely spread piles or pillars. The lichter structure o a pier allaws tides an currents tae flow almaist unhindered, whauras the mair solit foundations o a quay or the closely-spaced piles o a wharf can act as a breakwater, an are consequently mair liable tae siltin. Piers can range in size an complexity frae a semple lichtweight widden structure tae major structures extendit ower a mile oot tae sea.

Piers hae been biggit for several different purposes, an acause thir different purposes hae distinct regional variances, the term pier tends tae hae different nuances o meanin in different pairts o the warld. Sicweys in North Americae an Australie, whaur mony ports wur, till recently, biggit on the multiple pier model, the term tends tae imply a current or umwhile cargo-handlin facility. In Europe housomeivver, whaur ports hae tended tae uise basins an river-side quays rather than piers, the term is principally associatit wi the image o a Victorian cast iron pleasure pier. Housomeivver, the earliest piers pre-date the Victorian age.

Piers can be categorized intae different groupins accordin tae the principal purpose. Housomeivver thare is considerable owerlap atween thir categories. For ensaumple, pleasure piers aften an aa allou for the dockin o pleasure steamers an ither seemilar craft, whilst wirkin piers hae aften been convertit tae leisure uise efter bein rendered obsolete bi advanced developments in cargo-handlin technology.

Wirkin piers wur biggit for the handlin o passengers an cargo ontae an off ships or (as at Wigan Pier) canal boats. Workin piers themselves faw intae twa different groups. Langer individual piers are aften foond at ports wi lairge tidal ranges, wi the pier stretchin far eneuch aff shore tae reach deep watter at law tide. Sic piers providit an economical alternative tae impounded docks whaur cargo volumes wur law, or whaur specialist bulk cargo wis handled, sic as at coal piers. The ither form o wirkin pier, aften cawed the finger pier, wis biggit at ports wi smawer tidal ranges. Here the principal advantage wis tae gie a greater available quay lenth for ships tae berth against compared tae a linear littoral quayside, an sic piers are uisuallie muckle shorter. teepically each pier wad cairy a single transit shed the lenth o the pier, wi ships berthin bow or stern in tae the shore. Some major ports consistit o lairge nummers o sic piers linin the foreshore, classic ensaumples bein the Hudson River frontage o New York, or the Embarcadero in San Francisco.

The advent o container shippin, wi its need for lairge container handlin spaces adjacent tae the shippin berths, haes made wirkin piers obsolete for the handlin o general cargo, awtho some still survive for the handlin o passenger ships or bulk cargos. Ane ensaumple, is in uise in Progreso, Yucatán, whaur a pier extends mair nor 4 mile intae the Gulf o Mexico, makin it the langest pier in the warld. The Progreso Pier supplies muckle o the peninsula wi transportation for the fishin an cargo industries an serves as a port for lairge cruise ships in the aurie. Mony ither workin piers hae been demolished, or remain derelict, but some hae been recycled as pleasure piers. The best kent ensaumple o this is Pier 39 in San Francisco.

At Southport an the Tweed River on the Gold Coast in Australie, thare ar piers that support equipment for a saund bipassin seestem that maintains the heal o sandy beaches an navigation channels.

Pleasure piers wur first biggit in Ingland, during the 19t century. The earliest structures wur Ryde Pier, biggit in  1813/4, Leith Trinity Chain Pier, biggit in 1821, an Brighton Chain Pier, biggit in 1823. Ae the auldest o thir piers still remains. At that time the introduction o the railweys for the first time permittit mass tourism tae dedicatit seaside resorts. Housomeivver, the lairge tidal ranges at mony sic resorts meant that for muckle o the day, the sea wis no visible frae dry land. The pleasure pier wis the resorts' answer, permittin holiday makers tae promenade ower an alangside the sea at aw times.  The langest Pleasure pier in the warld is at Soothend-on-sea, Essex, an extends 2,158 metres (1.34 mi) intae the Thames estuary. The langest pier on the West Coast o the Unitit States is the Oceanside Pier.

Pleasure piers aften include ither amusements an theatres as pairt o the attraction. Sic a pier mey be open air, closed, or pairtly open, paritly closed. Whiles a pier haes twa decks.

Earlie pleasure piers wur o wooden construction, wi iron structures bein introduced wi the construction in 1855 o Margate Jetty, in Margate, Ingland. Margate wis wrecked in storms in 1978 an wis niver repaired. The auldest iron pleasure pier still remainin is in Soothport, Ingland, an dates frae 1860 - housomeivver the warlds auldest iron pier dates frae 1834 an is in Gravesend, Kent. Gravesham council hae recently purchased an refurbished this passenger pier.

Mony piers are biggit for the purpose of providin land locked anglers access tae fishin grunds that are itherwise inaccessible.




#Article 208: Snap-Dragon (Gemm) (105 words)


Snap-dragon wis an Inglis spence gemm weel-likit fae aboot the saxteent tae nineteent centuries. Hit wis spieled in throu the wunter, in parteecular on Christenmas Eve (altho in soum variants o hit wis spielt at Hallae e'en insteid). Brandy wis het an stanced in a braid shauld bowl; raisins wis stanced in the brandy whilk wis syne set ableeze. For ordinar, lichts wis Oot quentit or blee'd tae eik tae the oorie effeck o the blue lowes birlin athort the strunt. The ettle o the gemme wis tae pouk the raisins oot o the brunin brandy an eat thaim, at the chynce o bein scaudert.




#Article 209: ß (117 words)


The ß — German Eszett () or scharfes s (shairp s) gin spelt oot — is a letter uised in the German alphabet juist. It alternates wi ss unner certaint condeetions, an it is replaced bi ss whan thare's nae ß tae uise. ß is naur-haund unique amang the letters o the Laitin alphabet in that it haes nae dooble letter form syne it ne'er occurs initially (ane o the feow ither exemplars is kra, uised in Greenlandic). Sae German 'Fußball' whan scrieven in dooble letters is 'Fussball'.

ß wis uised as an orthographic variant o s in aulder forms o Scots writin an aa, for exemplar discloiß, meanin disclose, in John Knox's Address to the Congregatioun. 




#Article 210: Die Welt (210 words)


Die Welt is a German naitional newspaper setten furth bi the Axel Springer company. It wis foondit in Hamburg in 1946 bi the Breetish occupeein militar, an taks a centre-richt poleetical stance (in thair ain wirds, liberal cosmopolitan).

The average circulation o Die Welt is aboot 209,000 praisently, an the blad can be obteent in mair nor 130 kintras. Daily regional edeetions appears in Berlin an Hamburg, an in 2002 the paper stairtit wi a Bavarie edeetion. A newspaper reegional supplement appears in Bremen forby. The main editorial office is in Berlin, thegither wi the Berliner Morgenpost.

The newspaper nou sets furth a compact edeetion enteetlt Die Welt Kompakt a 48-page cuttit-doun version o the main braidsheet.

Die Welt is the flagship publication, amang the sae-cawed quality newspaper mercat, o the Axel Springer empire. Its foremaist competitors is the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, the Süddeutsche Zeitung an the Frankfurter Rundschau. Financially, it haes been a lossmakker for mony years.

Die Welt wis foonder member o the European Dailies Alliance (EDA) an haes a langstaundin co-operation wi compearable daily newspapers fae ither kintras, includin the Daily Telegraph (UK), Le Figaro (Fraunce) an ABC (Spain).

The paper disna prent on Sundays, but its poseetion is taen bi the publication Die Welt am Sonntag.




#Article 211: Marianne Beuchert (103 words)


Marianne Beuchert is a Frankfurter florist an gairdener, an her wark has been furthsetten syne 1997. She scrievt the beuk Die Gärten Chinas, whilk first kythed in 1983, an wis efter prentit in Chinese. For Sträuße aus meinem Garten she gat the 1984 Buchpreis (Beuk Awaird) o the Deutsche Gartenbau Gesellschaft (German Gairdenin Association). Ither weel-kent publications o her wark are Symbolik der Pflanzen (1995) an Gärten am Reiseweg (1997). Thae beuks wis eleckit intil Tap five Gairdenbueks in throu 1997 an 1998 bi the Deutsche Gartenbau Gesellschaft. An forthirlyare, a muckle o ither contreibutions hae kythed in FAZ Magazin an ither blads.




#Article 212: Aït-Ben-Haddou (187 words)


Aït-Ben-Haddou is a Wawed Clachan at the eyn o the Hohen Atlas in Süd-Osten Marokkos. The village consists o sev'ral nestit Kasbahs. 

Gin an hou lange the ceity yett as normal doun-hames exist can isna claer. Sicher ist jedoch, daß die Lehmbauten der Siedlung einen hohen Pflegeaufwand erfordern. Dieser konnte in der Vergangenheit durch die Bevölkerung geleistet werden. Verfall und Aufbau hielten sich die Waage.

The lang-term exeestance o the settlement is thraitent bi the sinkin o the watter-table that's been gaun o for years, younkers leavin the ceety, the weir an teir o the wather an ither pressurs fae the iver growin flowe o tourists. Conseederin this backgrund, the chynge fae clachan tae open-air museum canna be turnt aboot.

Aït-Ben-Haddou becam weel-kent efter bein listit as a Warld Heirskip Steid bi the UNESCO an as a Film location (e.g. Orson Welles's Sodom und Gomorrha an Gladiator). The last ane unfortunate-like caused chynges tae the place. For example the port in the pictur foregrund wis biggit efterhaund for tae amplifee the effect o the impression o a closed ceety ower an abuin that whit it wis onywey.




#Article 213: Motorwey (144 words)


A motorwey is a muckle road athin a ceity, or jynin monie ceities thegither. For ordinar, a motorwey is a road that haes monie lanes o traffec in ilka airt, aften wi a pheesical diveesion (median) atween opposin traffec, an separate entry roadstae an frae the motorwey that's mair widely separatit nor connections on a staundart road an is aften grade-separated . A motorwey micht proheebit ingang bi fit-gangers (walkers) an leemit whit vehicles can gae on it.

Scotland disna hae mony motorweys, but twa o its maist important is the:

M74, frae the sooth-wast o Glesca tae the mairch wi Ingland

M8, frae the wast o Embro richt through the mids o Glesca

Glesca is at the hert o the motorwey seestem o Scotland an there are plans tae hae the M74 tae jyne the M8 at J20 o the M8, in Glesca.




#Article 214: Vita-Cola (200 words)


Vita-Cola (VEET-ah KOHL-a) is a cola drink made in the east o Germany. It wis oreeginally an eemitation o Coca-Cola made in the German Democratic Republic, kent as Aest Germany an aw. It wis introduced in 1957, adverteesed as a Brauselimonade mit Frucht- und Kräutergeschmack“ (fizzie drink wi fruit an yerb gusts) an uisin a formulae that is yet hauden hidlins like Coca-Cola's Merchandise 7X formulae). At its peend, Vita-Cola wis bottled in owre 200 factories.

Aifter the dingin doun o the Berlin Waw an Airn Curtain in 1989, Vita-Cola's business swith cam in an Wastern cola kenmerks teuk its place. Houaniver, wi the advent o Ostalgie (nostalgia amang Ossis for auld lang syne in Aest Germany), monie ae-time Aest German products wis brocht back, Vita-Cola bein ane o the maist weel-likit. The firm Thüringer Waldquell (itsel an aest German company) gat the richts tae the name an formulae an begoud makkin Vita-Cola in 1994.

Vita-Cola's gust is best descrieved as cola-like wi a stark leemon an fruit kichenin. Forby thon it is noticeably less succred nor Afri-Cola, Coca-Cola or Pepsi-Cola, an haes a wee glittie conseestencie endue tae its uiss o citrus an ither aromatic iles in the formulae.




#Article 215: Brian Adam (300 words)


Brian Adam (born 10 Juin 1948 - dee'd 25 Aprile 2013) Wis a Scots politeecian, an a Commissioner tae the Scots Pairlament, representin the Scots National Pairty (SNP).  In 2003 he wis waled for tae represent the consteetuency o Aiberdeen North, efter haein been waled fae the north-east regional leet in 1999.

He wes an MSP for Nor Aest Scotland Region atween the years 1999 an 2003 ,syne efterhaund representit Aiberdeen North Constituency frae 2003 til 2011 an lest like for Aiberdeen Donside up til his daith in 2013.

The years frae 2007 til 2011 Brian Adam wes chief whip athin the minority SNP Govrenment alang wi bein Co-Convener o The Cross Pairty Group for Ile an Gas. Forby thon he wes alsae The Meinister for Pairlament Business an Chief whip frae Mey 2011 til Septembre 2012.

On Aprile 25t 2013, Adam dee'd efter fechtin lang-term illness.

Brian Adam wes born in 1948 an upbrocht in The Veillage o Newmill ,2 mile benorth o the Toon o Keith in Moray.

He attendit Keith Grammar School, an efterhaund wun til a BSc (Hons)  in Biochemistry an a MSc in Clinical Pharmacology frae Aiberdeen University.

His wirkin career stairtit wi Glaxo in Montrose, Angus frae 1970 til 1973, afore he ontaen a job as a Biochemist at the Ceitie Hospital in Aiberdeen whaur he bade wirkin  til 1988.

Frae 1988 Adam wirkit as the heidmaist biochemist in The Naitional Health Service at Aiberdeen Ryal Infirmary an forby thon wes a trade Unions Activist, afore he wes electit tae The Scots  Pairliament at Halyruid in 1999.

He bade in Aiberdeen an wes a memmer o The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints an alsae wes a keen supporter o Aiberdeen Fitba Club an wad gaun til a feck o thair Gemms.




#Article 216: Lum hat (106 words)


A lum hat is a flet-croun, braid-scruipt  hat wuirn bi men an cleckit in the 1820s. It wis a gey common heidweir oot throu the 1800s an verra aerlie 1900s.

Thay wis made o stechie felt made fae beaver fur an syne for ordinar fae silk. A weel-likit version, in parteecular in the Unitit States oot throu the 19th centurie, an popularised bi Abraham Lincoln in his presidency wis the stovepipe hat. The stovepipe hat is a bittie heicher an disna git braider naur the tap.

Some lum hats (cried opera hats) hae huiddins inowre makkin it collapsible.

Lum hats is whiles associate wi stage cantrips.




#Article 217: Anthony Boucher (223 words)


Anthony Boucher (21 Augist, 1911 - 29 Aprile, 1968)  wis a science feection  meesterie scriever, editor, an reviewer wi a Scots Forebeir (his grandfaither).

Boucher wis born William Anthony Parker White in Oakland, California, an gaed tae college at the Varsity o Soothren California. He later gat a Maisters degree fae the Varsity o California at Berkeley. He wis admired for his meesterie writins descrieved as specimens o the grand deductive tradeetion, fou o lockit-room riddles an orra clues an intellectual rackets, kittelt bi the owthor's loue o leids an leeteratur an theatre an oprea an Sherlock Holmes an science feection an bawdy eemir an the tole , socially concernt weeng o the Catholic Kirk, but wis best kent for his editin, his science feection anthologies, an his meesterie reviews for monie years in The New York Times. He wis the first Inglis trunchman  o Jorge Luis Borges, turnin El jardín de senderos que se bifurcan for Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine. He helpit foond the 'Mystery Writers o Americae' in 1946. Forby thon he wis editor o the Magazine o Fantasy an Science Fiction for several years efter its inception an wis seminal in ettlin tae mak leiterarie quality a gey important aspect o science feection. Anthony Boucher dee'd o lung cancer on 29 Aprile, 1968 at the 'Kaiser Foundation Hospital' in Oakland.




#Article 218: Dentylion (106 words)


The dentylion (Taraxacum officinale) an pairt o the Asteraceae faimily, is kent as the dandillie or witch gowan an aw. Acause o its diuretic naitur, the dentylion is aft cried pish-the-bed or pee-the-bed. The sap is cried witches' or deil's milk. It is aft said that the dentilion is an antidote for hert-fiver.

The dentylion haes yellae flouers.

Bairns whiles play whit o clock is it? wi the seed-heids, kent as doun-heid-clocks, by blawin on them. The nummer o seeds that bides on the flouer-heid is syne coontit for tae gie the oor o the day.

Dentylions can be makkit intil a wine cried dentylion Wine.




#Article 219: Theresa May (441 words)


Theresa Mary May (née Brasier; born 1 October 1956) is a Breetish politeecian wha served as Prime Meenister o the Unitit Kinrick an leader o the Conservative Pairty frae 2016 tae 2019. She haes been the Member o Pairlament (MP) for Maidenhead syne 1997. May identifies as a ane-naition conservative an haes been chairacterised as a leeberal conservative. She wis the seicont female Prime Meenister an Conservative Pairty leader efter Margaret Thatcher.

The dauchter o a vicar, May grew up in Oxfordshire. Frae 1977 till 1983, she wirked for the Bank o Ingland, an frae 1985 till 1997 at the Association for Payment Clearing Services, servin as a cooncillor for Durnsford in Merton an aw. Efter unsuccessfu attempts tae be electit tae the Hoose o Commons in 1992 an 1994, she wis electit as the MP for Maidenhead in the 1997 general election. Frae 1999 tae 2010, May held a nummer o roles in the Shaidae Cabinets o William Hague, Iain Duncan Smith, Michael Howard an David Cameron, includin Shaidae Transport Secretary an Shaidae Wirk an Pensions Secretar. She wis Chairman o the Conservative Pairty frae 2002 tae 2003.

Efter the formation o a coaleetion govrenment follaeingthe 2010 general election, May wis appyntit Hame Secretar an Meeinister for Weemen an Equalities, giein up the latter role in 2012. Reappyntit efter the Conservative victory in the 2015 general election, she went on tae acome the langest-servin Hame Secretar syne James Chuter Ede ower 60 year previously. During her tenur she pursued reform o the Polis Federation, implementit a haurder line on drogs policy includin the bannin o khat, owersaw the introduction o electit Polis an Crime Commissioners, the deportation o Abu Qatada, the creaution o the Naitional Crime Augency an brocht in addeetional restrictions on immigration.

Follaeing Cameron's resignation in Juin 2016, May successfully contestit the Conservative leadership contest an automatically acame Prime Meenister in Julie. As Prime Meenister, May's focus haes primarily been on widrawin the UK frae the European Union. She haes cawed for the reintroduction o the grammar schuil seestem in the UK an aw. In Aprile 2017, May annoonced her intention for a general election for 8 Juin 2017, the follaein day pairlament votit in favour o the snap general election. In the election, despite gains in Scotland, the Conservatives lost thair majority an made an agreement wi Northren Ireland's Democratic Unionist Pairty tae stay in govrenment.

Efter her Brexit deal failed tae get support in the Hoose o Commons, Theresa May propaled her demission as Prime Meenister an Conservative leader on 24 Mey 2019, wi Boris Johnson bein chosen tae succeed her in baith poseetions in Julie.




#Article 220: Sundial (113 words)


A sundial meisurs solar time. It daes this acause the sun seems tae muive athort the lift. It merks the times o the day a shaidae is cuist on merkit pynts o the sundial. A body merks the sundial wi the time that the shaidae wis cuist. Ye can syne see the time. Thare's a few common sundial kynds sic as the plain yaird sundial. Houaniver, sundials can be biggit onygate whaur a stelt object cuists an expectit shaidae. Sundials can shaw - the time, the date, the time tae sundoun an the time frae the keek o day.

Auncient Egyp haed sundials. Ither culturs developed thaim further, includin the Greeks and Romans.




#Article 221: Eternal Word Television Network (1021 words)


EWTN—or The Eternal Word Television Network—is a televeesion an radio operation that braidcasts Catholic religious programmin, via satellite, tradeetional braidcast televeesion, shortwave radio an the Internet.

EWTN began in 1981 an transmits 24 oor programmin tae 104 million hames in 110 kintras an 16 regions on cable, satellite, an law-power TV. EWTN offers a wide variety o Catholic themed programmin. This includes Daily Mass fae thair Irondale Monastary/Studios, Talk Shaws sic as EWTN Live an Sunday Evening Live, Daily Rosary, Benediction, lairnin programmes, enterteinment (divert)/variety shaws, bairns' programmin, live coverage o warld Catholic events sic as Bishops' conferences an Papal traivels, Muisic shaws, programmin for younkers, an mair.

The foonderess o EWTN, Mother Angelica, foondit Our Lady of Angels Monastery naur Birmingham, Alabama an began developin short written releegious teachins. As thae short beuks becam mair kenspeckle, Mither Angelica's fellae nuns leukit at technologie for tae enable warldwide distribution.

Mither Angelica began gittin requests for spaekin engagements, whilk turnt intil a video series o her talks taped at a local Birmingham telly station. Eventually, she biggit a TV studio on monastery property in Irondale, Alabama, a suburb o Birmingham. This developed intil the warldwide braidcast centre that EWTN is nou.

EWTN signed on in Augist o 1981 wi 4 oors a day o programmin. Thaiy ran The Mass anly on Sundays. Thay makkit Mother Angelica Live twa nichts a week. Forby thon thay ran rerins o pre-EWTN Mother Angelica's teaching series an talks. Thay filt the rest o the tyme wi shaws made bi Catholic dioceses athort the kintra. Thay forbye ran Christian drama shaws makkit bi the Lutheran Kirk sic as This Is Life an Patterns For Living, a drama shaw cried Westbrook Hospital, a few Protestant teachin shaws that wis gree'd tae catholic preenciples, an Christian Bairns' shaws lik Joy Junction an The Sunshine Factory. Naur-haund a third o the time EWTN aired secular shaws sic Bill Cosby (fae the late 60's), public domain picturs, twa-three ceukin shaws, an a puckle o wastern shaws.

Initially thay ran the Mass ance ivery sennicht on Sundays. In 1986 EWTN drappit the secular shaws an wis completely releegious at that pynt. In 1987 EWTN wis able tae git a Satellite Chainel fou time an gaed 24 oors a day. At this pynt thay began rinnin the Rosary daily, eikit far mair teaching shows fae athort the kintra. Thay slowly began tae produce mair o thair ain shaws.

In 1991 thay began tae run the Mass daily. Thay an aa increased production tae nearly hauf the day. Thay an aa became mair selective aboot thair programming. Thay began rejectin shaws thay felt wis too progressive. Thay forbye drappit naur ivery non Catholic makkit shaw. Thay began mixing Latin in the daily an Sunday Mass. Mother Angelica an aa began wearing the aulder teep claedin. Thay chynged thair image tae mair o a traditional leuk an attitude which thay still hae the day. While follaein kirk teaching aw alang, in the past 15 or sae year thay hae leaned mair tradeetional as well as conservative.

In 1992, EWTN established the lairgest privately owned shortwave radio station in the Birmingham aurie. The station broadcasts Catholic programming 24 oors a day in Inglis an Spaingie. In 1996, EWTN launched a free satellite-delivered AM/FM radio network tae stations warldwide, an aa in Inglis an Spaingie.

In 2004, EWTN annoonced an agreement wi Sirius Satellite Radio, which allous Sirius tae cairy EWTN programming.

The EWTN News department produces a daily news service for the television an radio network, featurin news soorces includin Vatican Radio.

EWTN hauds strict tae the lear o the Roman Catholic Kirk, sicwice its conceits o nane-Catholic bodies or organisations wad reflect the Kirks's threap on sic maiters. Thay deed believe that Protestants, Orthodox, an non-Christians can an aft dae win salvation foondit on whit thay ken an unnerstaund, tho thay affirm that aw nane-Catholics lacks the hail truith. For mair anent this, see the pairt on Salvation in the airticle anent the Catholic Kirk. EWTN haes a negative view o progressive Catholics that thay tak tae be Cafeteria Catholics. Mair oot ower thay hae a great disdain for Catholics that disna accept aw the Kirk's teachins.

EWTN haes aye hauden tae the teachins o the Roman Catholic Kirk but at the ootset thay wis gey inclusive an ecumenical in thair foremaist years. In thair programmin thay aye leant tae findin common grund wi ither Christians. Thay ran a braid variety o Catholic produced programmin frae sindry Roman Catholic soorces. This reenged frae Charismatic Muivement programmin sic as Faither Michael Manning tae shaws focusin on social reform an juistice lik Christopher Closeup tae teachin shaws hostit bi sindry priests an bishops some o thir wis on the progressive side. Whan thay haed tae program 24 oor a day an wis wantin the resoorces for tae mak thair ain shaws thay teuk shaws thay wadna e'en conseeder the day. The Mass thay ran wis haily in Inglis an aw.

In the early 1990s EWTN begoud tae produce mair o thair ain shaws. Thay begoud tae rin the Mass ilka day. Thair conceits begoud tae cheenge in response tae progressive conceits athin the Kirk. Thay begous preachin agin relativism as weel as fowk that didna follae The Kirk's teachins. Thay begoud tae shaw disdain tae the wey Mass wis bein celebrate in sindry pairishes. Thay argied that mony kirks nae langer celebratit the Mass in a reverent mainer. As an affcome thay begoud tae mixter-maxterin Laitin inta thair ain Masses. Thay still celebratit the Novus Ordo Mass but a few common prayers wad be said in Laitin. Thay cuttit the hymns tae juist the openin an closin sangs an aw. In atween thay uised Gregorian Chant. Mony o thir cheenges reflects the actual instructions o the Seicont Vatican Cooncil, set in the constitution on the liturgy Sacrosanctum Concilium.

At this pynt Mither Angelica an her order o nuns swappit thair cleidin tae the pre-Vatican II tradeetional habit an aw.

The netwirk forbye airs coverage o Kirk events warldwide, documentaries, muisic specials, the Rosary, an ither devotional segments.




#Article 222: Grammar (153 words)


The grammar o a leid is a set o rules tae produce sentences in thon leid.

The term refers baith tae rules that descrives whit fowk actually says (descriptive grammar), an thaim that prescrives whit fowk shuid say (prescriptive grammar). The term grammar whan uised in schuils for ordinar refers tae prescriptive grammar, but linguists mair aften uises grammar wi the first o thae meanins. Linguists uises the seimilar term seentax tae refer tae the internal structur o sentences produced bi a grammar.

Baith linguists an computer scientists, specially thaim in the field o naitural langage processin, ettles tae pit thegither grammars that wad generate aa an juist the grammatical sentences o a leid. Whit a grammatical sentence is in an artifeicial leid, sic as a programmin leid, can be strickly defined; for normal, whit a grammatical sentence is in a naitural leid can be jaloused bi native spaekers o thon leid juist. 




#Article 223: Thou (129 words)


Thou is the seicont person singular pronoun o the Inglis leid. Thou is the nominative case; the oblique/objective (functioning as baith accusative an dative) is thee, an the genitive is thy or thine.

In modren Inglis thou continues tae be uised in some o the regional byleids o Ingland, some releegious contexts (referrin tae God whan caipitalized) an in certain speceefic phrases, e.g. holier than thou, fare thee well. Than, its contemporary uiss is an archaism.

Thou ([ðu]) wis uised alot in Scots frae the XVIt tae the beginins o the XIXt ane, far example bi makars like Robert Burns. It is gey less uised nou.

Orkney* yet (the yoch) uises wirds sic as thoo, thee, an thou. Ither aulder Scots furms includes ȝe, ȝow, thowe, thoue, an thous.




#Article 224: Lääne Coonty (136 words)


Lääne Coonty (), or Läänemaa (, ), is ane o 15 coonties o Estonie. It is locatit in wastren Estonie an borders Easter Seas tae the north, Harju Coonty tae the north-east, Rapla Coonty tae the east, Pärnu Coonty tae the sooth, an the island coonties o Saare an Hiiu tae the wast. 27,477 fowk live in Lääne Coonty – constitutin 2.0% o the total population in Estonie (as o Januar 2009).

The Coonty Govrenment () is led bi Govrenor (), who is appointit bi the Govrenment o Estonie for a term o five years. Syne 15 Dizember 2011, the Govrenor position is held bi Innar Mäesalu.

The coonty is subdividit intae municipalities. Thare is ane urban municipality, Haapsalu ( – toun) an 11 landwart municipalities ( – pairishes) in Lääne Coonty.

Urban municipality:

Landwart municipalities:




#Article 225: The Great Dictator (113 words)


The Great Dictator, the Greit Dictator in Scots, is a pictur directit bi an starrin Charlie Chaplin. First released in 15 October, 1940, it is a satire on fascism an in parteecular Adolf Hitler an Nazism. Chaplin's pictur is kenspeckle fae this pre-Warld Weir II period (1940) for its fearless saitirisation an condemnation o Hitler an Nazism, an for its gleg shawin o the plicht o Jews in Europe. It wis Chaplin's first talkin pictur, an hauds the disteenction o bein baith his maist controversial an sonsefu pictur. Apairt fae the pictur itssel, this public confront o the maist-loued hallion o his times (Chaplin) against the maist laithed leader (Hitler) is historically unique.




#Article 226: Winston Peters (106 words)


Winston Peters (born 11 Aprile 1945 in Whangarei) is a New Zealand politeecian, an a member o the kintra’s pairlament in Wellington, representin the pairty New Zealand First. He is a leet member o the pairlament unner the proportional representation seestem. He is the chief o his pairty forbye, syne its foondin in 1993. He held the affice o Deputy Prime meenister frae 1996 tae 1998, an foreign meenister frae 2005 tae 2008, an haes held baith poseetions again unner Jacinda Ardern's Labour-led coaleetion syne October 2017. He is an aa expectit tae fulfil the duties o Prime meenister when Ardern gies birth in Juin 2018.




#Article 227: Yoch (376 words)


The letter yoch (ȝoch) (Ȝȝ; Scots: yoch; Mid English: ȝoch) wis uised in Mid English and Scots for the soond o y (/j/) and ither seemilar soonds. The chairacter yoch wis aften confuised wi a cursive z. Gin the yoch wisna available, writers wad uise the letter ‘z’. Sic-like, muckle Lallan Scots wirds haes a z insteid o a yoch.  It is nou maistlins spelt wi the letter y or z awtho it haes been kent tae chynge intil a j or g.

Far ensaumple, yes wis written ȝise, nicht wis niȝt and Ȝe turnt tae ye. The yoch leuks awfu like a Indien nummer three (3), that micht be substitutit for the yoch in written wirks.

The dooble letter and lawer case letters (Ȝ, ȝ) is representit in the Unicode wi code pynts U+021C Ȝ LATIN DOOBLELETTER YOCH(HTML amp;#540;) and U+021D ȝ LATIN LAWER CASE LETTER YOCH (HTML amp;#541;).

In auld Scots, the yoch wis uised for the soond /j/ in the cluster o soonds /lj/, /ŋj/ and /nj/ written as lȝ and nȝ.

Afttimes thir wis written as nȝ(h)e, ngȝe, ny(h)e or ny(i)e, and lȝ(h)e, ly(i)e or lyhe (gn and gli in ). In the Modren Scots, the yoch wis replaced by the chairacter z in /ŋj/, /nj/ (nȝ) and /lj/ (lȝ), written nz and lz. 

The oreeginal /hj/ and /çj/ became the /ʃ(j)/ in some wirds like Ȝetland or Zetland for Shetland.

Yoch wis uised for tae represent the /j/ in wirds sic as ȝe, ȝhistirday (yisterday) and ȝoung but it wis replaced by the y . The pronunciation o the familiy name MacKenzie (fae the Gaelic MacCoinnich [pronunced maxˈkʰɤɲɪç]), wis oreeginally pronunced [məˈkɛŋjiː] in the Scots[1]. Menzies Campbell is seemilar. 

The chairacter yoch wis aften confuised wi a cursive ‘z’ that leuks seemilar to the yoch. Gin the yoch wisna available, writers wad uise the letter ‘z’. The yoch can be fund in faimily names that stairts wi a Y in Scotland and Ireland; sic as the familiy name Yeoman, whit wad hae been spelt Ȝeman. Aftimes the yoch wad juist hae beeen replaced by the letter z. 

In the Unicode 1.0, the chairacter yoch wis mistaken for the seemilar chairacter ezh (Ʒ ʒ), and yoch wisna addit tae Unicode until v3.0. 




#Article 228: Mayenne (112 words)


Mayenne () is a depairtment in northwast Fraunce namit efter the Mayenne River.

Mayenne is ane o the oreeginal 83 depairtments creatit durin the French Revolution on 4 Mairch 1790. The northren twa thirds correspond tae the wastren pairt o the umwhile province o Maine.   The soothren third o Mayenne corresponds tae the northren portion o the auld province o Anjou.

Efter the Coalition's victory at Waterloo, atween Juin 1815 an November 1818, Mayenne wis occupeed bi Proushie troops.

Mayenne is pairt o the current region o Pays de la Loire an is surroondit bi the depairtments o Manche, Orne, Sarthe, Maine-et-Loire, an Ille-et-Vilaine.

The inhabitants of the department are called Mayennais.




#Article 229: Haaick (320 words)


Hawick or Haaick (soondit hoik or, gey informalie, heik; Scots Gaelic: Hamhaig) is a toun in the Mairches in the sooth o Scotland. It's maist weil-kent for its yeirlie Common Ridin that celebrates the youth frae the toun's win ower an Inglis raidin pairtie in 1514 - weimin cudna ryd in it till no ower lang syn. It's ane o the faurest touns frae the sie in Scotland an it byds in the hert o Teviotdale. Hawick's the mukkilest toun in the coontie o Roxburghshire anaw, an it's awfu weil-kent for the makkin o qualitie knitweir. Mansfield Pairk, a rugby grund in Hawick, is the hame o Hawick RFC anaw.

Fowk frae Hawick caws thaimsels Teris, eftir yon tradeitional sang that haes the line Teribus y Teriodin in it - sum fowk haes pit it ower as meinin laund o daith an laund o Odin. Mair recent, the meinin o Teri micht cud be deskrived as bein sumbodie that's bade in Hawick sae suin as thay cud hae duin, sin aw the bairns o paurents frae Hawick frae Julie 1988 wul hae been born in the Borders General Hospital in Melrose.

Hawick ligs in the dale o the Teviot at the pynt that the River Slitrig gangs an jyns it. The A7 Edinburgh ti Cairlisle road gangs throu the toun, wi main roads leadin ti Kelsae an Newcastle anaw. The toun lost its rail serviss in 1969 bit thar's a raiglar bus serviss til the railwey station at Cairle, 50 mile awa. If ye wantit ti flee sumwhaur the naurest steids ti flee frae ar at Edinburgh an Newcastle.

Rivalrie atwein the smaw Mairches touns is gey aften play'd oot on the rugby feild but the aft-comical historical antagonism haes lessent in recent yeirs as the economic fortuin o the region haes dwyn'd.

In the 2001 census, it haed 14,801 indwallers, makkin it the mukkilest toun in the Scots Mairches.




#Article 230: Isan (393 words)


Isan (Isan/ ; an aa written as Isaan, Isarn, Issan, or Esarn;  īśānya northeast) is the northeast region o Thailand.  It is locatit on the Khorat Plateau, an haes a mairch wi Laos alang the Mekong River tae the north an east, an a mairch wi Cambodie tae the sootheast an the Prachinburi mountains sooth o Nakhon Ratchasima. Tae the wast it is separatit frae Northren an Central Thailand bi the Phetchabun muntain range.

Frae the beginnin o the 20t century this region in northeastren Thailand wis offeecially named as Isan, a term adoptit frae Sanskrit Ishan that means “north east direction.” The term Isan wis oreeginally derived frae Isanapura, caipital o the Chenla kinrick.  The Lao-speakin fowk frae this region, who comprise a majority o the population, distinguish themselves no anerlie frae the Lao o Laos but in addition an aa the central Thai bi cawin themsels later as Khon Isan, or Thai Isan.  The Khmer an Kuy (Suai) who live in the soothren pairt o the northeast region o Thailand communicatit in leids an follae customs that are mair similar tae Cambodie than tae the tradition o either the Thai fowk or the Lao fowk.

Agricultur is the main economic activity, but due tae the socio-economic conditions an hot, dry climate, ootput lags ahint that o ither pairts o the kintra.  Isan is Thailand's poorest region.

The main leid o the region is Isan, whilk is a dialect o the Lao leid.  As a dialect o Lao, but written in the Thai alphabet, Isan is amang the Chiang Seng an Lao-Phutai leids, whilk are members o the Tai leids o the Kradai leid family. Thai is an aa spaken, wi regional accents, bi amaist awbody. Khmer (the leid o Cambodie) is widely spoken in regions near the mairch wi Cambodie (Buriram, Surin, an Sisaket). Maist o the population is o Lao oreegin, but the region's incorporation intae the modern Thai state haes been lairgely successful.

Prominent aspects o the cultur o Isan include the indigenous form o fowk muisic, cawed mor lam (), Muay Thai () boxin, cock fechtin, an celebratory processions (). Isan fuid, in whilk sticky rice (, khao niao) an chiles are prominent, is sufficiently distinct frae Thai cuisine that it is considerit unique.  Sticky rice is a staple o Thai Northeastren cuisine, an it accompanies meals frequently.




#Article 231: Slang (594 words)


Slang is the byordinar uiss o wirds in the leed o a parteecular social group, an whiles the cleckin o new wirds or the inbringin o wirds frae anither leed. It is a kin o neologism. Slang can be descrieved as deviatin awa frae the ordinar uiss o a leed. Slang functions in twa weys; the cleckin o new langage an new uisses throu a process o creative informal uiss an adaptation, an the cleckin o a saicret leed that's juist unnerstuid bi them athin the group that's mynt tae unnerstaund it.

Frae this, slang is a kin o sociolect ettlin tae exclude certain fowk frae cawin the crack. Slang firstlins functions as encreeption, sae that the nane-initiate canna lift the meanin, or as a further wey tae communicate wi them that unnerstaunds it. Slang functions as a wey tae recogneeze members o the selsame group, an tae sinder that group frae the society aboot it. Slang terms is aften parteecular tae a certain subculture, sic as muisicianers, skatebuirders, an drog uisers. Slang for ordinar implees playfu, informal speak. Slang is hauden apairt frae jargon, the technical vocabular o a parteecular profession, as jargon is (in theory) no uised tae exclude fowk ootwi the group members frae the conversation, but raither deals wi the technical peculiarities o a gien field that requires a speicialized vocabular.

Ae uiss o slang is a semple wey o evytin social taboos. The ordinar uiss o a leed for ordinar evytes expleecitly evokin certain realities. Slang, an the informal forms o language an aw, allous a body tae talk aboot thir realities in a speicial language redd o the ordinar connotations in the ordinar register. Slang vocabulars is parteecularly rich in certain domains, sic as sexuality, veeolence, crime, an drogs.

There isna juist ae slang, but mony mony varieties—or dialects—o slang. Sindry social groups in different times haes brocht on their ain slang. The importance o encreeption an identity varies amang the sindry slangs.

Slang maun aye renew its process o expression, an in parteecular its vocabular, sae that them that's no a pairt o the group will aye no can lift the slang. The exeestence o slang dictionars, o coorse, scomfishes the effectiveness o certain wirds. Mony slang terms passes intae informal ordinar speak, an syne whiles intae ordinar formal speak.

Oreeginally, certain slang designatit the speak o fowk inrowed in the creeminal unnerwarld, hooligans, bandits, creeminals, etc. Therefore, their vocabular cairiet awfu vulgar connotations, an was strictly rejectit b speakers o richt langage. Ither groups brocht on their ain slangs. For ordinar, groups on the mairgins o ordinar society that wis excludit or rejectit bi it.

Historical examples o slang is the thiefs' cant uised bi gaberlunzies an the unnerwarld. In aforegane centuries: a nummer o cantin dictionars wis setten furth.

Glesga Rhymin Slang is the kynd o rhymin slang peculiar tae Glesga an the ither urban areas aroond it. As wi aw ither rhymin slang, it jist substitutes a wird or phrase fir anither ane that rhymes wi it - an can aften become raither convoluitit as wirds fae the slang that disnae rhyme wi the substitutit wird become uised raither nor the hale phrase eg. Paraffin ile (fir style) cuid be said as Paraffin, jist - as in Ye'v nae parrafin.  Whiles this can make the phrase a tait obscure an teuch tae follae the meanin o, that's aften pairt o the fun o it - figurin oot whit's meant by wirds uised in sentences wi nae appearant connection tae the rist o the sentence.




#Article 232: Berrick (281 words)


Berrick (, Scots Gaelic: Bearaig-a-Deas) is a toun in the coonty o Northumberland an is the northmaist toun in Ingland, on the east coast at the mooth o the River Tweed. It is situatit 2.5 mile (4 km) sooth o the Scots border.

Berik, the umwhile coonty toun o Berikshire, haed a population o 11,665 at the time o the Unitit Kinrick Census 2001. A ceevil parish an toun cooncil wur creatit in 2008.

Foondit durin the time o the kinrick o Northumbrie, which wis pairt o the Heptarchy, the aurie wis central tae historic border war atween the Kinricks o Ingland an Scotland for centuries; the last time it chyngit haunds wis when Ingland reconquered it in 1482. Berwick remains a traditional mercat toun an haes some notable airchitectural features, in pairticular its defence rampairts an barrack biggins.

The oreegin o the toun's name is o Norse, or Auld Inglis, wi the seicont element wick either comin frae vik meanin a bay, or a wic meanin a settlement. The first element is an aa ambiguous, an mey refer tae either baurley (baer) or the heidland (bar) which cuts athort the Tweed estuary. Anither interpretation claims Corn Farm as the meanin o Berik.

Berik wis referred tae as Sou Berik bi the Scots, tae differentiate it frae the toun o North Berrick, in East Lothian, east o Edinburgh.

Queen Victoria e'en signed a declaration o weir wi Roushae as Victoria, Queen of Great Britain, Ireland, Berwick-upon-Tweed and all British Dominions. An acause o that, e'en whan Treaty o Paris (1856) wis signed, it wis offeecially yit at weir wi Roushie for ower a hunneryear haein no been mentiont in the agreeance.




#Article 233: Henery II, Duke o Guise (102 words)


Henri o Lorraine, Duke o Guise (* 4 Aprile 1614; † 2 Juin 1664) wis the first Airchbeeshop o Reims.
Takin again the Naples familial pretentions, he teuk place tae Masaniello riot in 1647. He governs in this time the Royal Republic o Naiples, unner French protectorat, but the loss o supply o Mazarin mak Naipolitans hatin him. Spaingie fowks attack again, destruct the Republic an imprison Henery, wha'll keep bein prisoner frae 1648 tae 1652. He'll tempt tae anew the Naipolitan campain in 1654, bat will nae win, becaus o the Inglis fleet leadit bi Robert Blake that wis alreidy thar.




#Article 234: James VII, King o Scots (120 words)


King James VII an II (14 October 1633–16 September 1701) becam King o Ingland, Scots, an Ireland frae 6 Februar 1685. He wis the hindermaist Catholic ryal tae ring ower the Ingland, Scotland, or Ireland. His fowk daed mislippen his religious policies an said  despotism, willin a group o thaim tae depone him in the Glorious Revolution. His protestant dochter Mary II an his guid-son King Billy wis pitten intil office, no his Catholic son James Francis Edward. James VII wis the last ryal o Scotland tae uise the traditional title King o Scots, that haed been in uiss sin Kenneth I o Scotland in 843. Mary II, William (King Billy) an Anne I uised o Scotland no o Scots.




#Article 235: Sheena Blackhall (516 words)


Sheena Blackhall (1947, in Aiberdeen) is a Nor' Aest scriever, illustrator, tradeetional ballant sangster an shenachie. Ootthrou 1998−2003 she wis Creative Writing Fellow at Aiberdeen Varsity's Elphinstone Institute.

Sheena Blackhall is a screiver, illustrator, tradeetional ballant singer an shennachie in Nor East Scotland. Frae 1998 tae 2003 she wis Creative Screivin Fellow in Scots at Aiberdeen Vairsity’s Elphinstone Institute an eenoo is an Honorar Research Associate yonner. In 2009 she becam Makar (poet laureate) fur Aiberdeen an the Nor East. Twa o her plays fur bairns wis televised, The Nicht Bus and The Broken Hert. Alang wi Les Wheeler, she co-edits the Doric wabsteid Elphinstone Kist, an has wirked on the Aiberdeen Reading Bus as a shennachie an screiver. 

In 2003 she traivelled as pairt o a boorich tae Washington, showcasin Scotlan's culture as a guest o the Smithsonian Institution. In 2007 she wis Creative Screivin Tutor at the Institute o Irish an Scottish lear at King's College, an twa years eftir wis Screiver in Residence durin Aiberdeen Vairsity’s Wird Festival.

Sheena Blackhall wis born Sheena Booth Middleton in 1947 in Aiberdeen, dother o the manager o Strachan's Deeside Omnibus Service, Chae Middleton, an his secunt cousin, fairmer's dother Winifred Booth. She wis educatit in Aiberdeen, bit simmered in Ballater fur mony years. 

Aifter a year's study at Gray's Schule o Art, Blackhall vrocht fur a while as a speecial needs teacher, whaun she screived tales fur BBC Radio Scotlan’s producer Frieda Morrison. In 1994 she won a Bsc (Hons. Psych) frae the Open University, gaun on tae get an M.Litt wi Distinction frae Aiberdeen Vairsity in 2000. 

In April 2009 she wis creatit Makar for Aberdeen  and the Nor East o Scotland. She ias won the Robert McLellan tassie fur best Scots short story 3 times (1989,1990,2001) an the Hugh MacDiarmid trophy fur best Scots poem 4 times (1990,2000,2001,2010). In 1992 she shared the Sloane Award wi Matthew Fitt, frae St. Andrew's Vairsity. Ither prizes are awards frae the Doric Festival, the Bennachie Baillies, an frae the TMSA fur ballant screivin an traditional singin. She his twice bin shortlisted fur the Callum Macdonald Poetry Pamphlet prize (2005  2009). In 2007, Lallans Magazine awarded her the William Gilchrist Graham prize fur best Scots short story. She has likewyse bin shortlistit fur the McCash poetry prize. In 2013 she won 1st prize in Bipolar Scotland's Short Story Competition, in 2014 she becam a Patron o Readin. 

Blackhall is also an Honorary Fellow o the Wird Centre for Creative Screivin at Aiberdeen University. In 2018 she wis gien the award o Batchelor o the University bi Aiberdeen University. In 2019 she wis presentit wi the Janet Paisley Lifetime Achievement Award for her wark in Scots. In Novemmer 2019, she wis made Nor East Makar fur three years, bi the Doric Boord. In 2020 Blackhall becam an Honorary Officer o Merit  o the Confraternity o the Knights o the Maist Haly Trinity (Priory o Scotland) . She wis tae be awardit the Eagle o Honour medal, tae be presentit bi the Knights efter the corona virus pandemic wis ower.




#Article 236: Radio (125 words)


Weirless or Radio is a communications invention uisin electromagnetic waws for tae get electronic information frae ae place tae anither athoot weirs. A transmitter sends the seegnals that's turnt intae soonds bi a receiver. The device is aften cried a radio. It wis oreeginally uised for tae communicate atween twa fowks, but they nou uise it for tae listen tae muisic, news an collogue.

Radio programmes is transmittit ower fower frequencies: AM, FM, short waw and langwaw an aiblins ithers forby.

Italy's Guglielmo Marconi inventit the radio in the 1890s.

Radio programmes is aften transmittit throu stations.

A speicial type o radio braidcastin is satellite radio; examples o sic stations includes XM an Sirius.

The auld wey o braidcastin haes syne been renamed terrestrial radio.




#Article 237: Jesus Christ (1425 words)


Jesus or Jesus Christ wis a Jewish prophet that lived in the 1st century in Roman Palestine. In Christianity, he is the anly son o God an Mary is his mither. Jesus is kent as prophet in Islam an aw. In Christianity, Jesus Christ sacrifeed hissel for humanity an his follaeers fur that they can be forgien for their sins.

(Aw Biblical quotes in this airticle haes been taen frae W.L Lorimer's translate)

Gaun by the Gospels, Jesus wis born in the clachan o Bethlehem, sax mile frae Jesusalem. Tho his faimily wis frae Nazareth, his faither haed come frae Bethlehem oreeginally an haed tae gang there for tae be registrate durin a census, an while there Jesus wis born. Maist modren historians jalouses that he was born atween 6 an 4 BC. Christians jalouses that he wis born (or begatten) o the Haly Speerit an his mither Mary, wha they threap wis a maiden at the time. E'en sae, he haed a yirdly faither, cried Joseph. Joseph semss tae hae been a skeely craftsman o some kynd, aften hauden tae hae been a jyner, an it is for ordinar said that Jesus wis a jyner an aw whan he grew up. Like aw Jewish lads, he wad hae been circumcised at aicht day auld an brocht up wi kennin o the Torah (Jewish Law) an Jewish customs.

Gey little is kent anent his bairnheid, tho in his Gospel Matthew scrieves that efter his birth his faimily flee'd for some time tae Egypt for tae evyte King Herod, wha haed ordered that aw bairns in Bethlehem be kilt, syne the wyce men frae the East tauld him they jaloused the King o the Jews haed been born. This pit Herod in a richt fankle an, syne he kent fine weel he wisna popular ava wi the fowk, he thocht this new born bairn micht kythe as a leader o opposeetion tae him. Joseph wis wairned anent this in a dream, an teuk the gate tae Egypt till Herod wis deid.

The ae story o Jesus' bairnheid kythes in The Gospel o Luke tellin that the faimily war in Jerusalem for the Passower festival (ane o the maist important Jewish festivals). The story gaes that Jesus cam tae be skailed frae his fowks, an whan they realised this, they gaed tae the Temple for tae find him. There he wis settin toung tae issues anent the Torah wi Doctors o the Law that wwis amazed at his kennin (syne tradeetion hauds that he wis anerly aboot twal year auld, tho this nummer disna kythe in the accoont Luke gies). Some scholars haes threapit that Jesus wisna a bairn at the time, an the Doctors o the Law wis in fact amazed bi a laich jyner kennin sae muckle anent the Law.

Aw three o The Seenoptic Gospels records the Bapteesm o Jesus bi John the Bapteezer, (that Luke threaps wis Jesus' kizzen) an pynt tae this as the stairtin o Jesus' meenistry-darg. It seems that Jesus gaed doun tae the River Jordan whaur John wad bapteeze the fowk that cam til him, an speired that John dae the same til him. John wis at first sweirt tae dae sae syne he jaloused Jesus wis greater nor himsel:

Efter this, God sent doun his Speerit in the form o a dou, for tae bliss him. Syne Jesus gaed tae the muirs for fowerty days for tae fast an pray afore his meenistry-darg. While he wes there, Sautan cam til him an temptit him for tae turn him aside frae the gate he ettelt tae tak (i.e. Sautan ettelt tae rauchle Jesus' meenistry-darg wi sin). Housome'ev, Jesus resistit thir temptations an efter the fowerty days wis ower he quat the muirs for tae stairt his wark.

Efter he quat the muirs, Jesus stairtit his meenistry-darg. Hou lang this lestit for isna clear. The Gospel o John seems tae indicate that it lestit for three year (syne three sindry Passower feasts kythes in his Gospel), but some interpretations o The Seenoptic Gospels coud be said tae haud that it lestit anerly the ae year. The problem is made mair teuch bi the fact that the Gospels aften taks a raither theological sklant tae chronology, sae events coud be pitten in deeferent orders for tae mak a theological pynt.
Still an on, it is certain that while he wis at his darg, Jesus wis attractin muckle thrangs that cam tae hear him speak an preach the Kinrick o Heiven. His teachins wis anent sic things as bein hummle, luve for God an Man an ither things sib tae them forby thon. He taucht anent the need tae repent o sins an the comin o the end o the yird an aw. The Gospels records that durin his meenistry-darg, Jesus performed mony ferlies, sic as healins, ruisin up the deid an siclike. Muckle o his time wes spent ettlin tae bring ower sinners sic as hures an tax-gaitherers (that war seen as traitors tae their ain fowk syne they sidit wi the Romans) syne he threapit that:

Forby thon, Jesus taucht anent the heepocrisy o the Jewish leaders an agin strict legalism, that made-him-na popular wi the authorities. His claims anent himsel (re: bein the Messiah) gart mony o the leaders tae haud him as a blasphemer an aw, an it seems it wisna lang afore they war drauchtin again him.

Somtime aboot the Passower, the Jewish leaders decidit tae kill Jesus, an teuk in the hulp o Judas Iscariot, ane o Jesus' follaers. He begeckit Jesus tae thaim, an he wis reestit an pitten on trial. Efter bein speired at bi the Sanhedrin (the Jewish waldin cooncil) an Pontius Pilate (the Roman heidman o Jerusalem), it wis decidit that he wad be execute. Syne Jesus' releegious crimes wadna be wirth the daith penalty unner Roman Law, the Jewish leaders tauld Pilate that syne he threapit tae be King o the Jews he wis a thrait tae Rome an Roman owerins - a rebel (anti-Roman sentiment wis dreidit, an unco common, an wad later lead tae open rebellion an the rauchle o Jerusalem in AD 70). Sae it wis that Jesus wis crucifee'd. The Gospels aw grees that Jesus dee'd muckle faster nor maist fowk that's crucifee'd.

Christians jalouses that Jesus haed tae dee as a saicrifice for aw the sins o aw the fowk, an that he kent anent Judas' begeckin aforehaund. In Judaism, saicrifices o beasts sic as sheep an gaits wis needit for the forgien o sins, but Christains haud that Jesus wis the ae perfit saicrifice, an that he cam til the yird:

Efter he wis deid, ane o the Seenagogue leaders, a chiel cried Joseph o Arimathea teuk his corp an yirdit him in his ain graff.

The feck o Muslims hauds that Jesus dee'dna on the cross ava, an haes twa-three theories anent hou he joukit frae daith includin that he wis substitute for anither chiel (sic as Judas Iscariot or Simon o Cyrene) afore the crucifeection, an that he joukit frae Jerusalem.

Christians jalouses that Jesus wis raised up days efter his daith. He wis kilt on the Friday efternuin, an gaun by The Gospels he wis raised up frae the deid on the Sunday morn that in Jewish upcastin is three days (syne in Jewish upcast pairt o a day coonts as ae day). Tho The Gospel accoonts isna exact the same, they aw gree that a smaw curn o weemen, includin Mary Magdalene an Mary the Mither o Jesus cam til the graff for tae annynt Jesus' corp wi spices efter the Jewish cuistom. They record twa-three kythins tae the disciples an Luke scrieves o his gaun up til the lift afore a thrang. Christians jalouses that in his raisin up, Jesus defeatit daith an the pouer o Sautan, an this is ane o the maist important Christian beliefs.

The name Jesus is an translate o a common Jewish name kent as Joshua (bein in Ebrue Yahosha - The Laird is ma hulp). He is aften cried Jesus Christ - frae the Greek Χριστός (Christós) that means The Annyntit Ane that in Ebreu is מָשִׁיחַ (Mašía), for ordinar transleeterate as Messiah. This comes frae the Jewish custom o annyntin kings wi ile at their crounin. It shoud be merkit that Christ an Messiah is teetles an no names. Jesus is cried Jesus o Nazareth forby, syne Nazareth is the clachan whaur he is jaloused tae hae bidit for maist o his life.




#Article 238: Releegion (257 words)


Thir ideas anent the basic structur o the warld canna be studied uisin juist the scienteific method.

Releegions ettles tae repone tae speirins lik Whaur did the warld come frae? an Whit happens tae us efter we dee? Whan answers tae thir speirins is fand, fowk sterts new releegions or eiks thair beliefs tae auld anes. Monie releegions believes in supernaitural beins sic as speerits, deils, angels, gods or God, that can influence fowk an the warld. Fowk that writes anent or teaches a releegion says thay gat thair ideas frae a supernaitural bein.

Monie releegions is gey auld, but some fowk shapes new anes whan thay dinna lik the ideas o the auld anes. Things conseidert important bi releegions is cryed saucrit or halie. Monie o thaim haes saucrit beuks (the Bible bein an exemplar) that tells o thair ain main beliefs an stories.

Mony releegions believes that fowk will gae tae Heiven foriver efter thay dee, gin thay'r guid, or Hell gin thay are ill. 

Releegions aften encourages fowk tae be guid, but thay aften causes problems an aw, acause a releegion's speirins is that important tae its follaers, an it's difficult tae ken whit answers is richt.

Historically, whan fowk dinna accept ideas aboot ithers' releegions, or ithers micht cause problems for thair ain, confrontations an fechts arises atween thaim.

Monie releegions haes biggins for thair follaers tae meet. Dependin on the releegion, thay micht be cryed kirks, chaipels, temples, mosques, shrines, or seenagogues. Monie o the warld's auldest biggins is releegious.

Medium-sized religions




#Article 239: Chad (408 words)


Chad (,  Tshād), offeecially kent as the Republic o Chad, is a landlocked kintra in central Africae. It is bordered bi Libie tae the north, Sudan tae the east, the Central African Republic tae the sooth, Cameroon an Nigerie tae the soothwast, an Niger tae the wast. Due tae its distance frae the sea an its lairgely desert climate, the kintra is whiles referred tae as the Deid Hert o Africae.

Chad is dividit intae three major geographical regions: a desert zone in the north, an arid Sahelian belt in the centre an a mair fertile Sudanese savanna zone in the sooth. Lake Chad, efter which the kintra is named, is the lairgest wetland in Chad an the seicont lairgest in Africae. Chad's heichest peak is the Emi Koussi in the Sahara, an N'Djamena, (formerly Fort-Lamy), the caipital, is the lairgest ceety. Chad is hame tae ower 200 different ethnic an linguistic groups. Arabic an French are the offeecial leids. Islam an Christianity ar the maist widely practiced releegions.

Beginnin in the 7t millennium BC, human populations muivit intae the Chadian basin in great nummers. Bi the end o the 1st millennium BC, a series o states an empires rose an fell in Chad's Sahelian strip, each focused on controllin the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed throu the region. Fraunce conquered the territory bi 1920 an incorporated it as pairt o French Equatorial Africae.

In 1960 Chad obtained unthirldom unner the leadership o François Tombalbaye. Resentment towards his policies in the Muslim north culminatit in the eruption o a lang-lastin ceevil war in 1965. In 1979 the rebels conquered the caipital an put an end tae the sooth's hegemony. Housomeivver, the rebel commanders focht amangst thairsels till Hissène Habré defeatit his rivals. He wis owerthrown in 1990 bi his general Idriss Déby. Recently, the Darfur crisis in Sudan haes spilt ower the mairch an destabilised the naition, wi hunders o thoosans o Sudanese refugees livin in an aroond camps in eastren Chad.

While mony poleetical parties are active, pouer lies firmly in the haunds o Preses Déby an his poleetical pairty, thei Patriotic Salvation Movement. Chad remains plagued bi poleetical veeolence an recurrent attemptit coups d'état.

The kintra is ane o the poorest an maist corrupt kintras in the warld; maist Chadians live in poverty as subsistence herders an fermers. Syne 2003 crude ile haes acome the kintra's primary soorce o export earnings, supersedin the traditional cotton industry.




#Article 240: Fraunce (3033 words)


Fraunce ( ), offeecially the French Republic ( ), is a kintra wi territory in wastren Europe an several owerseas regions an territories. The European, or metropolitan, aurie o Fraunce extends frae the Mediterranean Sea tae the Inglis Channel an the North Sea, an frae the Rhine tae the Atlantic Ocean. Owerseas Fraunce include French Guiana on the Sooth American continent an several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific an Indie oceans. Fraunce spans  an haed a tot population o awmaist 67 million fowk as o Januar 2017. It is a unitary semi-presidential republic wi the caipital in Paris, the kintra's lairgest ceety an main cultural an commercial centre. Ither major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse an Bordeaux.

In the Airn Age, whit is nou metropolitan Fraunce wis inhaibitit bi the Gauls, a Celtic fowk. The aurie wis annexed in 51 BC bi Roum, which held Gaul till 486, when the Germanic Franks conquered the region an formed the Kinrick o Fraunce. Fraunce emerged as a major European pouer in the Late Middle Ages, wi its veectory in the Hunder Years' War (1337 tae 1453) strenthenin state-biggin an poleetical centralisation. During the Renaissance, French cultur flourished and a global colonial empire wis established, which bi the 20t century wad be the seicont lairgest in the warld. The 16t century wis dominatit bi releegious ceevil wars atween Catholics an Protestants (Huguenots). Fraunce acame Europe's dominant cultural, poleetical, an militar power unner Louis XIV. In the late 18t century, the French Revolution owerthrew the absolute monarchy, established ane o modren history's earliest republics, an saw the draftin o the Declaration o the Richts o Man an o the Ceetizen, which expresses the naition's ideals tae this day.

In the 19t century Napoleon teuk pouer an established the First French Empire, whase subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the coorse o continental Europe. Follaein the collapse o the Empire, Fraunce endured a tumultuous succession o govrenments culminatin wi the establishment o the French Third Republic in 1870. Fraunce wis a major pairteecipant in the First Warld War, frae which it emerged victorious, an wis ane o the Allied Pouers in the Seicont Warld War, but came unner occupation bi the Axis Pouers in 1940. Follaein leeberation in 1944, a Fowert Republic wis established an later dissolved in the coorse o the Algerian War. The Fift Republic, led bi Charles de Gaulle, wis formed in 1958 an remeens tae this day. Algerie an nearly aw the ither colonies acame independent in the 1960s wi minimal controversy an teepically reteened close economic an militar connections wi Fraunce.

Fraunce haes lang been a global centre o airt, science, an filosofie. It hosts Europe's fowerth-lairgest nummer o cultural UNESCO Warld Heritage Steids an receives aroond 83 million foreign tourists annually, the maist o ony kintra in the warld. Fraunce is a developit kintra wi the warld's saxt-lairgest economy bi nominal GDP an nint-lairgest bi purchasin pouer parity. In terms o aggregate hoosehauld wealth, it ranks fowert in the warld. Fraunce performs well in internaitional rankins o eddication, heal care, life expectancy, an human development. Fraunce remeens a great pouer in the warld, bein ane o the five permanent members o the Unitit Naitions Security Cooncil wi the pouer tae veto an an offeecial nuclear-wappen state. It's a leadin member state o the European Union an the Eurozone. It is a member o the Group o 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Organisation for Economic Co-operation an Development (OECD), the Warld Tred Organisation (WTO), an La Francophonie an aa.

Oreeginally applee'd tae the whole Frankish Empire, the name Fraunce comes frae the Laitin , or kintra o the Franks. Modren Fraunce is still named the day Francia in Italian an Spaingie, Frankreich in German an Frankrijk in Dutch, aw o which hae the same historical meanin.

Thare are various theories as tae the origin o the name Frank. Follaein the precedents o Edward Gibbon an Jacob Grimm, the name o the Franks haes been airtit wi the wird frank (free) in Inglis. It haes been suggestit that the meanin o free wis adoptit acause, efter the conquest o Gaul, anerly Franks war free o taxation. Anither theory is that it is derived frae the Proto-Germanic wird frankon, which translates as javelin or lance as the thrawin axe o the Franks wis kent as a francisca. Houever, it haes been determined that thir wappens war named acause o thair uise bi the Franks, nae the ither wey aroond.

In 600 BC, Ionie Greeks, oreeginatin frae Phocaea, foondit the colony o Massalia (present-day Marseille), on the shores o the Mediterranean Sea. This maks it Fraunce's auldest ceety. At the same time, some Gallic Celtic tribes penetratit pairts o the current territory o Fraunce, an this occupation spread tae the rest o Fraunce atween the 5t an 3rd century BC. The concept o Gaul emerged at that time; it corresponds tae the territories o Celtic settlement rangin atween the Rhine, the Atlantic Ocean, the Pyrenees an the Mediterranean.

Aroond 125 BC, the sooth o Gaul wis conquered bi the Romans, wha cried this region Provincia Nostra (Oor Province), which ower time evolved intae the name Provence in French. Julius Caesar conquered the remainder o Gaul an owercame a revolt carried oot bi the Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix in 52 BC. Gaul wis dividit bi Augustus intae Roman provinces. Mony ceeties war foondit during the Gallo-Roman period, includin Lugdunum (present-day Lyon), which is conseedert the caipital o the Gauls.

Frae the 250s tae the 280s AD, Roman Gaul suffered a serious crisis wi its fortified borders bein attacked on several occasions bi barbarians. Nivertheless, the situation improved in the first hauf o the 4t century, which wis a period o revival an prosperity for Roman Gaul. In 312, the emperor Constantin I convertit tae Christianity. Subsequently, Christians, wha haed been persecutit till then, increased rapidly athort the entire Roman Empire. But, frae the beginnin o the 5t century, the Barbarian Invasions resumed, an Germanic tribes, sic as the Vandals, Suebi an Alans crossed the Rhine an settled in Gaul, Spain an ither pairts o the collapsin Roman Empire.

At the end o the Antiquity period, auncient Gaul wis dividit intae several Germanic kinricks an a remeenin Gallo-Roman territory, kent as the Kinrick o Syagrius. Simultaneously, Celtic Britons, fleein the Anglo-Saxon settlement o Breetain, settled the wastren pairt o Armorica. As a result, the Armorican peninsula wis renamed Brittany, Celtic cultur wis revived an independent petty kinricks arose in this region. The pagan Franks, frae that the auncient name o Francie wis derived, oreeginally settled the north pairt o Gaul, but unner Clovis I conquered maist o the ither kinricks in northren an central Gaul. The Franks embraced the Christian Gallo-Roman cultur an auncient Gaul wis eventually renamed Francia (Laund o the Franks). The Germanic Franks adoptit Romanic leids, except in northren Gaul whaur Roman settlements war less dense an whaur Germanic leids emerged. Clovis made Paris his caipital an established the Merovingian dynasty, but his kinrick wad nae survive his daith. The Franks treatit laund purely as a private possession an dividit it amang thair heirs, sae fower kinricks emerged frae Clovis's: Paris, Orléans, Soissons, an Rheims. The last Merovingian keengs lost pouer tae thair mayors o the palace (heid o hoosehauld). Ane mayor o the palace, Charles Martel, defeatit an Islamic invasion o Gaul at the Battle o Tours (732) an earned respect an pouer within the Frankish kinricks. His son, Pepin the Short, seized the croun o Francie frae the waikened Merovingians an foondit the Carolingian dynasty. Pepin's son, Charlemagne, reunitit the Frankish kinricks an biggit a vast empire athort Wastren an Central Europe.

Proclaimed Haly Roman Emperor bi Pape Leo III an sicweys establishin in earnest the French govrenment's langtime historical association wi the Catholic Kirk, Charlemagne tried tae revive the Wastren Roman Empire an its cultural grandeur. Charlemagne's son, Louis I (emperor 814–840), keepit the empire unitit; houiver, this Carolingian Empire wad nae survive his daith. In 843, unner the Treaty o Verdun, the empire wis dividit atween Louis' three sons, wi East Francia gangin tae Louis the German, Middle Francia tae Lothair I, an Wast Francia tae Charles the Bald. Wast Francia approximatit the aurie occupied bi, an wis the precursor, tae modren Fraunce.

The Carolingian dynasty ruled Fraunce till 987, when Hugh Capet, Duke o Fraunce an Coont o Paris, wis crouned Keeng o the Franks. His stryndantsthe Capetians, the Hoose o Valois, an the Hoose o Bourbonprogressively unified the kintra throu wars an dynastic inheritance intae the Kinrick o Fraunce, which wis fully declared in 1190 bi Philip II Augustus.

Lik the rest o Europe, Fraunce wis struck bi the Black Daith; hauf o the 17 million population o Fraunce dee'd.

The French Renaissance saw a spectacular cultural development an the first staundartisation o the French leid, which wad acome the offeecial leid o Fraunce an the leid o Europe's aristocracy. French explorers, sic as Jacques Cartier or Samuel de Champlain, claimed lands in the Americas for Fraunce, pavin the wey for the expansion o the First French colonial empire. The rise o Protestantism in Europe led Fraunce tae a ceevil war kent as the French Wars o Releegion, whaur, in the maist notorious incident, thoosands o Huguenots war murthert in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre o 1572. The Wars o Releegion war endit bi Henry IV's Edict o Nantes, which granted some freedom o releegion tae the Huguenots.

The monarchy reached its peak during the 17t century an the reign o Louis XIV. Fraunce obteened mony owerseas possessions in Americae, Africae an Asie. Louis XIV. amang mony things, revoked the Edict o Nantes, forcin thoosands o Huguenots intae exile. Unner Louis XV, Louis XIV's grandson, Fraunce lost New Fraunce an maist o its Indie possessions efter its defeat in the Seiven Years' War, which endit in 1763. An unpopular king, Louis XV's waik rule, his ill-advised financial, poleetical an militar deceesions  as well as the debauchery o his coort discreditit the monarchy, which arguably paved the wey for the French Revolution 15 year efter his daith.

Facin financial truibles, Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General (gatherin the three Estates o the realm) in Mey 1789 tae propose solutions tae his govrenment. As it came tae an impasse, the representatives o the Third Estate formed intae a Naitional Assembly, signallin the ootbreak o the French Revolution. Fearin that the king wad suppress the newly creatit Naitional Assembly, insurgents stormed the Bastille on 14 Julie 1789, a date which wad acome Fraunce's Naitional Day. The absolute monarchy wis subsequently replaced bi a constitutional monarchy. While Louis XVI, as a constitutional keeng, enjoyed popularity amang the population, his disastrous flicht tae Varennes seemed tae juistify rumours he haed tied his howps o poleetical salvation tae the prospects o foreign invasion. His credibility wis sae deeply unnermined that the aboleetion o the monarchy an establishment o a republic acame an increasin possibeelity.

Louis XVI wis convictit o traison an guillotined in 1793. Facin increasin pressur frae European monarchies, internal guerrilla wars an coonterrevolutions (sic as the War in the Vendée), the young Republic fell intae the Reign o Terror. Atween 1793 an 1794, atween 16,000 an 40,000 fowk war executit. In Wastren Fraunce, the ceevil war atween the Bleus (Blues, supporters o the Revolution) an the Blancs (Whites, supporters o the Monarchy) lastit frae 1793 tae 1796 an led tae the loss o atween 200,000 an 450,000 lives. Baith foreign airmies an French coonter-revolutionaries war crushed an the French Republic survived.

Efter a short-lived govrenmental scheme, Napoleon Bonaparte seized control o the Republic in 1799 acomin First Consul an later Emperor o the French Empire (1804–1814/1815). As a continuation o the wars sparked bi the European monarchies against the French Republic, chyngin sets o European Coaleetions declared wars on Napoleon's Empire. His airmies conquered maist o continental Europe wi swift victories sic as the battles o Jena-Auerstadt or Austerlitz. He redrew the European poleetical cairt, while members o the Bonaparte faimily war appyntit as monarchs in some o the newly established kinricks. Thir victories led tae the warldwide expansion o French revolutionary ideals an reforms, sic as the Metric seestem, the Napoleonic Code an the Declaration o the Richts o Man. Efter the catastrophic Roushie campaign, an the ensuin uprisin o European monarchies against his rule, Napoleon wis defeatit an the Bourbon monarchy restored. Aboot a million Frenchmen died during the Napoleonic Wars.

Efter his brief return frae exile, Napoleon wis feenally defeatit in 1815 at the Battle o Waterloo, the monarchy wis re-established (1815–1830), wi new constitutional leemitations. The discreditit Bourbon dynasty wis owerthrawn bi the Julie Revolution o 1830, which established the constitutional Julie Monarchy, which lastit till 1848, when the French Seicont Republic wis proclaimed, in the wake o the European Revolutions o 1848. In 1852, the preses o the French Republic, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, Napoleon I's neffae, wis proclaimed emperor o the seicont Empire, as Napoleon III. Napoleon III wis unseatit follaein defeat in the Franco-Proushie War o 1870 an his regime wis replaced bi the Third Republic.

Fraunce wis a member o the Triple Entente when Warld War I broke oot. A smaw pairt o Northren Fraunce wis occupied, but Fraunce an its allies emerged victorious against the Central Pouers at a tremendous human an material cost. Warld War I left 1.4 million French sodgers deid, 4% o its population.

In 1940 Fraunce wis invadit an occupied bi Nazi Germany. Metropolitan Fraunce wis dividit intae a German occupation zone in the north an Vichy Fraunce, a newly established authoritarian regime collaboratin wi Germany, in the sooth, while Free Fraunce, the govrenment-in-exile led bi Charles de Gaulle, wis set up in Lunnon. Frae 1942 tae 1944, aboot 160,000 French ceetizens, includin aroond 75,000 Jews, On 6 Juin 1944 the Allies invaded Normandy an in August thay invadit Provence. Ower the follaein year the Allies an the French Resistance emerged victorious ower the Axis pouers an French sovereignty wis restored wi the establishment o the Proveesional Govrenment o the French Republic (GPRF).

The GPRF laid the grundwark for a new constitutional order that resultit in the Fowert Republic, which saw spectacular economic growthe (les Trente Glorieuses). Fraunce wis ane o the foondin members o NATO (1949). Fraunce attemptit tae regain control o French Indocheenae but wis defeatit bi the Viet Minh in 1954 at the climactic Battle o Dien Bien Phu. Anerly months later, Fraunce faced anither anti-colonialist conflict in Algerie. Tortur and illegal executions war perpetratit bi baith sides an the debate ower whether or nae tae keep control o Algerie, then hame tae ower ane million European settlers, wracked the kintra an nearly led tae a coup an ceevil war. In 1958, the waik an unstable Fowert Republic gae wey tae the Fift Republic, which includit a strenthened Presidency. In the latter role, Charles de Gaulle managed tae keep the kintra thegether while takin steps tae end the war. The Algerie War wis concludit wi the Évian Accords in 1962 that led tae Algerie unthirldom.

In the context o the Cauld War, de Gaulle pursued a policy o naitional unthirldom taewart the Wastren an Eastren blocs. Tae this end, he widrew frae NATO's militar integratit command, he launched a nuclear development programme an made Fraunce the fowert nuclear pouer.

Syne the 1995 Paris Métro an RER bombins, Fraunce haes been sporadically targetit bi Islamist organisations, notably the Charlie Hebdo attack in Januar 2015 which provoked the lairgest public rallies in French history, gatherin 4.4 million fowk, the November 2015 Paris attacks which resultit in 130 daiths, the deidliest attack on French sile syne Warld War II, an the deidliest in the European Union syne the Madrid train bombins in 2004 an the 2016 Nice attack which caused 87 daiths during Bastille Day celebrations.

The European pairt o Fraunce is cried Metropolitan Fraunce an it is locatit in ane o the occidental ends o Europe. It is bordered bi the North Sea in the north, the Inglis Channel in the northwast, the Atlantic Ocean in the wast an the Mediterranean sea in the sootheast. It borders Belgium an Luxembourg in the northeast, Germany and Swisserland in the east, Italy an Monaco in the sootheast, an Spain an Andorra in the sooth an soothwast. The borders in the sooth an in the east o the kintra are moontain ranges: the Pyrenees, the Alps an the Jura, the mairch in the east is frae the Rhine river, while the mairch in the north an the northeast melts in na naitural elements.

Fraunce haes Owerseas regions athort the warld. Thir territories hae varyin statuses in the territorial admeenistration o Fraunce an are locatit:

Fraunce haes laund borders wi Brazil an Suriname in French Guiana an wi the Kinrick o the Netherlands throu the French pairt o Saunt Martin.

At  abuin sea level, the heichest pynt in Wastren Europe, Mont Blanc, is situatit in the Alps on the French an Italian border. Fraunce haes extensive river seestems sic as the Seine, the Loire, the Garonne, an the Rhone an aa, which divides the Massif Central frae the Alps an flows intae the Mediterranean Sea at the Camargue. Corsica lies off the Mediterranean coast.

Maist o the law-lyin auries o metropolitan Fraunce excludin Corsica are locatit in the oceanic climate zone, Cfb, Cwb an Cfc in the Köppen clessification. A smaw pairt o the territory borderin the mediterranean basin lies in the Csa an Csb zones.

Fraunce wis ane o the first kintras tae creaut an environment meenistry, in 1971. Awtho it is ane o the maist industrialised kintras in the warld, Fraunce is ranked anerly 17t bi carbon dioxide emeessions, behind less populous naitions sic as Canadae or Australie. This is acause Fraunce decidit tae invest in nuclear pouer follaein the 1973 ile crisis, which nou accoonts for 75% o its electricity production an results in less pollution. Forests accoont for 28% o Fraunce's laund aurie, an are some o the maist diverse in Europe, comprisin mair nor 140 species o trees. Thare are nine naitional pairks an 46 naitural pairks in France.




#Article 241: Spain (545 words)


Spain ( ), offeecially the Kinrick o Spain (), is a kintra maistly locatit on the Iberie Peninsula in Europe. The kintra's mainland is mairchit tae the sooth an east bi the Mediterranean Sea except for a smaw laund boondar wi Gibraltar; tae the north an northeast bi Fraunce, Andorrae, an the Bay o Biscay; an tae the wast an northwast bi Portugal an the Atlantic Ocean. Spaingie territory includes twa muckle airchipelagaes, the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea an the Canary Islands aff the African Atlantic coast, twa ceeties, Ceuta an Melilla, on the African mainland an several smaw islands in the Alboran Sea near the African coast. Spain is the anerly European kintra tae hae a mairch wi an African kintra (Morocco)

Wi an aurie o , Spain is the lairgest kintra in Soothren Europe, the seicont lairgest kintra in Wastren Europe an the European Union, an the fowert lairgest kintra in the European continent. Bi population, Spain is the saxt lairgest in Europe an the fift in the European Union. Spain's caipital an lairgest ceety is Madrid; ither major urban auries include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao an Málaga.

Modren humans first arrivit in the Iberie Peninsula aroond 35,000 year ago. Iberie culturs alang wi auncient Phoenicie, Greek an Carthaginian dounsets developit on the peninsula till it cam unner Roman rule aroond 200 BCE, efter that the region wis namit Hispania, based on the earlier Phoenicie name Sp(a)n or Spania. At the end o the Wastren Roman Empire the Germanic tribal confederations migratit frae Central Europe, invadit the Iberian peninsula an established relatively independent realms in its wastren provinces, includin the Sueves, Alans an Vandals. Eventually, the Visigoths wad forcibly integrate aw remeenin unthirlt territories in the peninsula, includin Byzantine provinces, intae the Kinrick o Toledo, that mair or less unifee'd poleetically, ecclesiastically an legally aw the umwhile Roman provinces or successor kinricks o that wis then documentit as Hispanie.

In the late aicht century the Visigothic kinrick fell tae the Moors, that ruled maist o the peninsula for the next seiven centuries, leavin anerly a haundful o smaw Christian realms in the north. Follaein the Moorish conquest, Europeans begoud a gradual process o retakkin the region kent as the Reconquista, that bi the late 15t century culminatit in the emergence o Spain as a unifee'd kintra unner the Catholic Monarchs. In the early modren period, Spain becam ane o history's first global empires, leavin a vast cultural an lingueestic legacy that includes ower 500 million Hispanophones, makkin Spaingie the warld's seicont maist spoken native leid, efter Mandarin Cheenese.

Spain is a secular pairlamentar democracy an constitutional monarchy, wi King Felipe VI as heid o state. It is a major developit kintra wi the warld's fowerteent lairgest economy bi nominal GDP an saxteent lairgest bi purchasin pouer parity. It is a member o the Unitit Naitions (UN), the European Union (EU), the Eurozone, the Cooncil o Europe (CoE), the Organisation o Ibero-American States (OEI), the Union for the Mediterranean, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation an Development (OECD), OSCE, the Schengen Aurie, the Warld Tred Organisation (WTO) an mony ither internaitional organisations. Spain hars a permanent invitation tae the G20 summits that occur generally ance a year.




#Article 242: Transformer (120 words)


A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy bi inductive couplin atween its windin circuits. A varyin current in the primary windin creates a varyin magnetic flux in the transformer's core an thus a varyin magnetic flux through the seicontary windin. This varyin magnetic flux induces a varyin electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the seicontary windin. Transformers can be uised tae vary the relative voltage o circuits or isolate them, or baith.

Transformers range in size frae thumbnail-sized uised in microphones tae units wichin hundrits o tons interconnectin the pouer grid.  A wide range o transformer designs are uised in electronic an electric pouer applications. Transformers are essential for the transmission, distreibution, an utilization o electrical energy.




#Article 243: The Sacred Heart Church (141 words)


The Sacred Heart Church is a Catholic kirk locatit in Wigtoun on Sooth Main Street. It is a kirk o the Roman Catholic Diocese o Gallowa.

A Gothic early Inglis style, brick kirk bi Edinburgh airchitect John Garden Brown biggit in 1879.

Cruciform wi a bellcote on the sooth gable, it consists o a nave, apse, north an  sooth transepts,  sacristy an seats aboot 300. The altar wis made bi M. Poussielgue-Rusand,  o Paris. The tot cost o the building wis aboot £1,500.

The fower lancet windaes oan the facade support a niche containing a statue o the Lord Jesus Christ.

The kirk is yin o anly twa biggins, baith kirks,  kennt tae hae been biggit bi the architect, whae deid age 27.

The kirk is forby uist as a venue throu the Wigtown Book Festival.

It is listed Category C(S)




#Article 244: Wigtoun (3675 words)


Wigtoun ( or  - baith uised local) () is a toun an umwhile ryal burgh in Wigtounshire, in Dumfries an Gallowa, Scotland. It wis the coonty toun o Wigtounshire. It lies east o Stranrawer an sooth o Newton Stewart. It is weel-kent nouadays as Scotland's National Beuk Toun wi a heich concentration o seicont-haundit beuk shaps an a annual beuk fest. It his a population o aroond 1,000.

Wigtoun is the weygate tae an the main centre o the Machars peninsula.

Acause o the Gulf Stream the climate is myld an plants for ordinar associatit wi the wairmer climates o lawer latitudes can be growed successfu there.

Nouadays Wigtoun is kent as Scotland's beuk toun an is sicweys compare't tae Hay-on-Wye in Wales. Houiver, in contrast tae Hay-on-Wye, Wigtoun's stats as a beuk toun wis planned, sae as tae regenerate a verra doun-castit toun (the main employers, the creamery an the distillery, haein closed in the 1990s), awtho the distillery (Bladnoch) his noo re-appent an is distillin its ain maut whisky. The war a national sairch in Scotland for a candidate toun. The Wigtoun Beuk Fest wis first haudit in 1999 an his growed tae be the seicont-lairgest beuk fest in Scotland.

Ae 18t century historian o the coonty, Samuel Robinson, notit that the greatest number of houses were of a homely character, thatched an one storey high. Each house, he conteenaed had a midden in the front o it. Bishop Pococke in 1760 notit an aw the existance o thackit hooses. Bi the end o the 19t century it wis said that twa hooses in the town wis haurdly the same; some hid gavel ends, ither anes hid lairge fronts broddit bi dou-hole windaes, while ither anes yet hid ootby stairs. Wigtoun wis descrived as the maist auld-farrant coonty toun in Scotland.

Toun Cooncil impruivements in the early 19t century greatly altert the face o Main Street. In 1809 toun bailies resolved tae impruive the main street at a moderate expense bi liftin the pave an makkin a graivel road aroond ilk side o the street, the ooter edge o whit wis tae be 44 fit fae the edge o the hooses. A plantation wis tae be leaved in the centre o the througang, that wis later laid oot wi scrogs an haint bi a rail. In 1830, the Wigtoun Boulin Club obteent a fittin in the plantation an bi the turn o the 20t century the square wis uised maistly bi boulers an tennis-players. A hantle o the square wis plantit up in the mid 20t century, bit in 2002 it wis restore't til the genteel Georgian appen plan freenged bi trees.

The Newton Stewart tae Whithorn brainch railwey line hid a station at Wigtoun; the first train ran on 2 Mairch 1875. The service cease't in 1950. The closin o the railwey service led direct tae the dwinnlin o the toun's main industry - the Bladnoch Creamery.

Wigtoun's grammar school is the auldest in Wigtounshire. Until 1712 the schuil disna appear to hae been conductit in a biggin set aside for that purpose, bit in that century the cooncil ordert aw residenters awnin hooses tae bring a draucht o timmer fae a nearby wid tae hel in the biggin o a schuilhoose. Near the end o the century the cooncil notit that the schuilhoose wis owercroudit an needit impruivement, bit acause o the puir state o the toun's finances, the bailies coudna dae muckle tae help at the time. The dominie wis promuived tae find mair room  in the toun at the expense o the stranger studentis.

A Roman Catholic primary schuil wis built oanent  the schuil bit it closed in 2004.

The pairish kirk o Wigtoun wis dedicatit til an obscure 6t century saunt, Machutus (Malo). On shaw within the modren pairish kirk is a Celtic interlace't cross shaft o the Withorn School datin back to aboot 1000 AD. Preceese hou auld the kirk is remeens a meestery, an awthou at ae time it belangt tae the priory o Withorn, Wigtoun pairish kirk wis efterhaund set up as a free rectory wi the king as the patron. A kirk wis biggit on the site o the medieval pairish kirk in 1730, an awmaist within a century that kirk wis in ruins, and a third pairish kirk wis built nearby in 1850. Pairts o 1730 kirk survive, awtho flinders o this micht be aulder than that date, acause the're a windae on the sooth side aisle buskit wi trefoiled heids an stane mullions wi shields cairved on them. Some residenters o Wigtoun mainteen that the ruins date back til the 13t century.

The Sacred Heart Catholic Churck is a Gothic Early English style cruciform kirk o nave an apse, bi airchitect John Garden Brown, an built in 1879. The fower lancent windaes on the facade uphaud a niche conteenin a statue o Christ. It is a leetit biggin, Categorie C(S). The kirk is ane o anely twa biggins, baith kirks , kent tae hae veen designt bi this airchitect that dee'd aged 27.

Wigtoun Quaker Meetin Hoose is at The Lorry Park, Chapel Court, South Main Street

This kirs is in Southfield Lane.

Wigtoun lies less nor ae mile fae Blaidnoch, a veelage wi a distillery producin maut whisky o the same name. The River Blaidnoch can be fisht for Atlantic saumon an his historical been weel-kent as ane o Scotland's finest rivers producin ware fish. It meets the River Cree in Wigtoun Bay, whimpelin throu a lairge aurie o saut quaw that his been designatit as a Local Nature Reserve (LNR). Wigtoun Bay is a lairgest LRN in Breetain, an is hame tae a fouth o wildlife, in parteecular birds.
Some fowk come til admire them fae the comfort o the viewin hides situated near Wigtoun Herbour, ither anes come tae shuit them. The first pair o fish hawks tae retour tae Gallowa in ower 100 year arrived in 2004. A live camera link tae thair nest wis creatit an can be viewed in the Coonty Biggins.

The Wigtown and Bladnoch Golf club has a nine-hole gowf coorse ootby the toun.

Til the east o Wigtoun is The Mairtyr's Stake. a moniment merkin the tradeetional site whaur the twa Margarets wis drount in the 17t century. Thair graffs is in the Pairish Kirk seemetry. The're a smaw cell in the Coonty Biggins that thay wis preesont in afore thair execution. This cell is aw that remeens o a much aulder biggin that wis lairgely malafoustert tae mak wey for the Coonty Biggins (built in 1862). A lairger moniment tae the Covenanters staunds on Windy Hill in the toun.

W. F. H. Nicolaisen offert twa explanations for the placename Wigtoun. Ane theory wis that it meant dwallin place, fae the Auld English 'wic-ton'; houiver, gin it is the same as Wigton in Cumbria that wis 'Wiggeton' in 1162 an 'Wigeton' in 1262, it micht be 'Wigca's ferm'. Ither soorces hae suggestit a Auld Norse ruit wi 'vik' meanin 'bay', giein the oreegin as a translation o 'the toun on the bay'.

The surroondin aurie (the Machars peninsula) is rich in prehistoric remeens, maist namely the 
Torhousekie Staundin Stanes, a Neolithic stane circle set on a raised platform o smawer stanes. It conseests o nineteen boolders up tae 5 fit heich rawed til the winter solstice, surroondin a ring cairn on whit the're three lairge stanes (flankers), twa upricht an wan lyin. On a law brae across the road fae the circle the're anither three stanes.

Andrew Symson, a 17t century meenister, suggestit the first sattlement wad hae stuiden on law-lyin saunds atween the praisent-day Wigtoun an Creetoun.

A lairge, braid street wis the focal pynt o sattlement in the medieval toun, bit wis greatly altert at the beginnin o the main street that endit turn aboot in the latter-day Bank Street. High Vennel an Low Vennel is baith early througangs. The burgh appeart brief in the customs report for 1330 an 1331 bit the amoont collectit wis smaw an its heyday as a port wis mainly in the 15t century. Even at the best o times, tred in the soothwast of Scotland wis smaw in quantity.

The ryal burgh wis grantit tae Sir William Fleming, Yerl o Wigtoun bi Keeng David II in 1341. In 1372 Wigtoun passt til the Yerls o Douglas, upon the sale o the yerldom til Archibald the Grim, bit wis restore't tae its umwhile burgage as a ryal burgh as an upshot o the forfeitur o the Douglases in 1455. Its status wis formal acknawledged bi a ryal chairter an fae that time the burgh wis firm siccart bi a feud-chairter at the auld feegur o £20 a year.

Wigtoun wis made a ryal burgh in 1469 awthou a sattlement here existit lang afore this. Wigtoun attendit the Pairlament o Scotland regular fae 1469 and the Convention o Ryal Burghs fae 1575. In 1500-1 anely taw ships came tae Wigtoun and Kirkcoubrie, an at ither times the war no owerseas tred ava.

Wigtoun hid twa ports (gates) that some scrievers hae assertit wis closed at nicht tae form a lairge cattle cruive. Andrew Symon refert til the East port, that stuid near NX 4352 5545 (Ordnance Survey Record Cards, NX 45 NW 18). The West Port stuid anent the mooth o the High Vennel and hints o it wis yet tae be seen in the 1930s. The ports o the toun wis formed bi skoutin hooses streetchin ower the street fae baith sides an a gate bein place't in the centre. In the late 19t century, ane o thir skoutin hooses yet stuid at the site o the West Port, an was a thing, in his opeenion, anything but ornamental to the town. The West Port can be seen on the map at the Cross, on the infaw o North and South Mount Streets. (Tae view, houd doun (Shift) key, an muive yer cursor on the map at maps:nls.uk)

In 1742 the're a reference tae diggin a wall ootby the West Port. This wall wad likely hae been the ane kent as the White Pump.

The toun cooncil in 1761 decidit that the ports wis hurtful to the place in that thay greatly incommode the carrying of corps of the deceased through the same. Stane fae the ports, that wis ordert tae be pullt doun tae thair steids, wis ordert tae be store't in a maist siccar mainer, sae that they might answer the uses of the burgh when they have the occasion.

The burgh is mentiont in an indentur o 1292, and that the office Shirra o Wigtoun wis in existence at the time o the Battle o Largs in 1263 suggests that the burgh micht hae been acknawledged an aw as sic durin the ring o Keeng Alexander III.

Twa walls wis supposed tae hae been respective at the castle an the freery.

Blackfriars, the Dominican freery, wis foondit at Friarland, north o the mooth of the Blaidnoch, sootheast o the toun o Wigtoun, bi Dervorguilla o Gallowa, the hauf-sister o Thomas McDowell o Garthland, Stoneykirk o Clan MacDowall in 1267. Dervorguilla mairit John I de Balliol an wis mither o King John Balliol. Thomas McDowell claimt the Kingdom o Gallway an micht hae been in custody at Friarland in later life.

The freers hid been grantit the fishins on the sooth side o Blaidnoch an in 1526 Keeng James V gied them thae on the north side an aw in a 13-year lease that later becam a propine. On this fishin stuid the toun's mill.

Wigtoun Castle wis in existence bi 1291, on flet laund doun by the River Blaidnoch (ootlines seen clear on an aerial view), while the toun and kirk wis on a ahill, an inversion of the usual arrangements. Naething remeens o the castle, awtho a strang natural site an a shawin o a lairge enclose't an defendit area seems tae pynt tae a castle of the Edwardian (Keeng Edward I o England) type,  datin fae the end o the 13t century. The site o the castle wis howkit efter a fashion about 1830, bi a Captain Robert M'Kerlie an a team o volunteers. The ootlines o a biggin wis clear hintit on that occasion an a ditch that hid been braid, wis clear seen on the north whaur the war a semi-circular rig an aw o conseederable hicht said tae be the remeens o the castle's ooter waw. A wheen o years later, a reporter in the Statistical Accounts of Scotland wrate that a fosse was quite discernable, awtho the foundations of the walls canot now be traced. Lime an other remains indicative of an ancient building were still to be observed.

The castle's history is virtual unkent, bit it micht hae been uised bi the leaders o Clan MacDowall. The Adair history relates that thair ancestor slaw the commaunder o Wigtoun Castle. Robert the Bruce micht hae issue't the orders for its slichtin. The anely kent hint o its existence efter the speal o the Wars o Scots Unthirldom occurs in a chairter o 1451 that a turris (tour) o Wigtoun is mentiont in. Its convenience as a local quarrel undoutitly accoonts for its hale disappearance.

Amang the five wast coast tredin ports, Kirkcoubrie an Wigtoun wis great rivals. in 1471 Wigtoun exportit £17 10s 0d wirth o guids an Kirkcoubrie £23 15s 0d. A wheen o years later Wigtoun exportit 1,250 hides as opposed tae 1,000 for Kirkcoubrie. Naitural, the kythin o Wigtoun hurtit Kirkcoubrie as a tredin port; houiver, as Kirkcoubrie dwinnle't sae in time did Wigtoun. Pairt o Wigtoun's dwinnlin micht be acause she dinna jyne in the herrin tred that wis the major export for a nummer o wast coast ports sic as Ayr an Irvin in the 15t century. Mairower, Wigtoun wis a conservative merchand community, an its exclusive tredin preevileges grantit tae them bi Keeng James II bec 
becam increasin threitent bi Whithorn.

The earliest reference tae the mercat cross an tron o Wigtoun occurs in the 1547 chairter. It appears that the mercat cross stuid afore the auld coort hoose an wis remuived for a short time in the 18t century. While the square wis bein biggit, the mercat cross wis stowed in the jyle. A seicont mercat cross wis upsetten in the main street in 1816, an at some pynt the oreeginal wis brung oot o its haudin in an place't til the wast o it. At some time later the aulder mercat cross wis mendit, re-pentit, an re-sitit til the east o the seicont ane.

An early reference til a towebuith in Wigtoun occurs in 1591, an it is like eneuch that this biggin wis blawn up bi gunpouder in the 18t century tae mak wey for the mercat hoose (or coort hoose) mentiont bi Bishop Richard Pococke in 1760 an anither 18t century scriever, Samuel Robinson. This municipal biggin in its shot gied wey til the current coonty biggins that wis biggit in 1862, wi thair unuisual French-style airchitectur. The coonty biggis wis sortit in 2002-3 follaein decades o neglect.

Andrew Symson, a 17t-century meenister o the kirk at Kirkinner, left a descrivin o Wigtoun. Writin in 1684, he descrieved Wigtoun as a indifferent bit weel-biggit toun wi a lairge, braid street. Bi the late 17t an early 18t centurys, Wigtoun Mercat disna appear to hae been raiglar attendit. In 1683 the toun cooncil wis gart tae tak steps tae gie a lift tae attendance at the weekly mercat an tae affroad forestallers an regraters, i.e. thaim that wad sell guids afore the offeecial mercat time, or later resell guids at a profit. The legislation seems tae hae hid no muckle effect, for in the follaein year, Andrew Symson notit that the toun wis smaw o tredin, thair mercat day is Monanday, bit it isna frequent. The 1692 report til the Convention o Ryal Burghs observed an aw that the toun hid no weekly mercat, bit did mainteen fower yearly fairs. Mercat faceelitys appear an aw tae hae been puir, wi no kivert pairt. In recent years Wigtoun his haudit a mercat in the square on Seturdays durin the simmer an in the coonty biggins in the winter.

Wigtoun's poseetion on the stent rolls shaws a steidy dwinnlin in her economic poseetion durin the 17t century. In 1597, Wigtoun wis set tax at 15 shillins, Dumfries peyed 36 shillins an 8 pennies, Whithorn peyed 5 shillins, an Kirkcoubrie, 18 shillins. In 1649, Dumfries hid shawn a merkit increase, bit the tither anes hid aw dwinnle't. Wigtoun peyed a set rate o 14 shillins in 1649, an the feegur remeent the same in 1670, bit hid fawen tae 6 shillins in 1692. The report til the Convention o Ryal Burghs in that same year reportit black-baised that the war no furrin tred an that the toun awnt no ships o boats. Existin inland tred wis gey conseederable an cam in fae Ayr, Glesga, an Dumfries.

Moniments til the Wigtoun Mairtyrs exist in Wigtoun. Durin The Killin Times o the Covenanters in the 17t century, Margaret McLachlan, an elderin wumman in her 60s. an Margaret Wilson, a teenager, wis decreetit tae be tied tae stakes in the tidal chainel o the River Blaidnoch near its entry tae Wigtoun Bay tae be drount bi the ingangin tide. The execution date wis 11 Mey 1685. The ploy wis that the younger wumman micht be perswaddit tae chainge her mynd efter watchin the aulder wumman droun. This execution wis cairit oot bi dragoons unner the commaund o Major Windram in the praisence o Sir Robert Grierson o Lag that haudit the King's Comeession tae nither the rebels in the Soothwast. Thair story, as telt in various soorces, tells hou the weemen wis begowkit bi an informer. Efter aboot a month in the preeson thay wis tried as rebels an decreetit tae deith bi drounin. The story o the Wigtoun Mairtyrs wis amang thae anes collectit bi Robert Wodrow an publisht in his History of the Sufferings of the Church of Scotland from the Restoration to the Revolution. The Kirk o Scotland synod hid decidit in 1708 tae collect accoonts o persecution unner the Stuart monarchs, and perswaddit Wodrow tae tak on the research. He wrate that Thomas Wilson lives now in this father's room, and is ready to attest all I am writing.

Ootthrou the 18t century, Wigtoun remeent maistly an agricultural toun, servin an odious landwart aurie. Like ither touns in Gallowa, Wigtoun didna growe tae ony appreciable size. The population o the pairish wis 1,032 in 1755, while in 1739, it stuid at 1,350. The reporter in the Statistical Accounts of Scotland notit the population wis dwinnlin in the landwart pairish an increasin in the toun for twa raisons: first, acause o the eikin o the ferms that gart the servands tae seek employment in the toun, an seicont, acause o the Irish emigrants.

Residenters o Wigtoun an the surroondin aurie wan thair leevin in a variety o weys. An 18t century observer, Samuel Robinson, said that fae its peculiar position in relation to the sea, the coonty o Wigtoun offert many singular advantages to the landing of smuggled goods an smugglers were not slow in taking advantage of this. Wigtoun toun cooncil in Julie 1774 acknawledged the pernicious and fatal consequences o smugglin aw kinds o proheebitit guids, in particular tea, fae the Isle o Man. The cooncil forder denunce't the drinkin o tea an brandy acause thair purchasin tuimt siller fae the coonty that cad be mair naitural employed in the makin o thair ain oo. In maugre o this pleadin, it wis anely at the end o the century that the toun appears tae hae adoptit industry. The reporter in the Statistical Account notit that in Wigtoun, as in awmaist aw the tither touns in Gallowa, the war a want o industry; houiver, something of a manufacturing spirit has arisen in this part of the county. Twa smaw oo an cotton warks wis introduce't intil the toun in the early 1790s, an awtho the ooen industry wis muckle mair soond nor the cotton, baith exportit guids tae England.

Ane 18t century historian o the coonty, Samuel Robinson, notit that the greatest number of houses were of a homely charachter, thatched and one storey hight. Ilk hoose, he conteenaed, had a midden in front of it. Bishop Pococke in 1760 notit an aw the existence o thackit hooses. notit that the greatest number of houses were of a homely character, thatched an one storey high. Each house, he conteenaed had a midden in the front o it. Bishop Pococke in 1760 notit an aw the existance o thackit hooses. Bi the end o the 19t century it wis said that twa hooses in the town wis haurdly the same; some hid gavel ends, ither anes hid lairge fronts broddit bi dou-hole windaes, while ither anes yet hid ootby stairs.

A Ryal Air Force fleein station, RAF Wigtown, wis biggit ootby the toun an appent in 1941. Unner the control o 29 Group RAF, the station wis hame tae No. 1 Air Observers School, later No. 1 Advanced Flying Unity (Observer), as weel as providin a short-term hame tae several operational RAF squadrons. The station wis closed in 1948. Nouadays it is rairly uised bi licht aircraft, whiles bein refert til as Baldoon Airfield.

This beuk wis publisht in 2012. Her account o follaein her dream an flttin fae Los Angeles an a job at NASA tae help rin a beukshap in Wigtoun and findin luve.

This beuk wis publisht in 2017. It descrives his experiences as the awner o The Bookshop, Scotland's lairgest seicont-handit bookshap.

The BBC reportit on 2 October 2018 that the options on baith beuks hid been bocht bi a Hollywood film compnay wi the idea o combinin them tae creaut a pictur.

In the Harry Potter universe, the quidditch team Wigtown Wanderers come fae the toun.




#Article 245: North Ayrshire (115 words)


North Ayrshire () is ane o the 32 cooncil auries o Scotland. It ligs alang the coast o the Firth o Clyde an haes mairches wi East Ayrshire til the eist, Sooth Ayrshire til the sooth, Inverclyde til the north an Renfrewshire til the nor'eist. It is made-up o the Isle o Arran, the Cumbrae Isles an pairt o the mainland o the Scots Lawlands.

The cooncil aurie wis shapit in 1996 as an eftirganger til the destrik o Cunninghame, whilk haed the same mairches. The cooncil heidsteid is in Irvine, whilk is the mukkilest toun. Anaw, North Ayrshire inhauds the touns o Ardrussan, Beithe, Dawry, Kilbirnie, Kilwinnin, Lairgs, Saulcoats, Skelmorlie, Stinson, an Wast Kilbride.




#Article 246: Roushie (1320 words)


Roushie /ˈruʃi/ or /ˈruʃe/ (; ipa: [rɐˈsʲijə]), offeecially kent as the Roushie Federation (Roushie: Российская Федерация, tr. rossiyskaya federatsiya; ipa: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə]) is a kintra on the Asie an Europe continent. It is bund bi twa oceans (the Airctic an Paceefic), an, frae northwast tae sootheast, bi the kintras Norawa, Finland, Estonie, Latvie, Lithuanie, Poland, (baith throu the Kaliningrad oblast) Belaroushie, Ukraine, Georgie, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Cheenae, Mongolie an North Korea. Its caipital is Moscow, an its current Preses is Vladimir Putin. It haes sea borders wi Japan bi the brine o Okhotsk, an the U.S. State o Alaska athwart the Bering Strait. at 17,075,400 square kilometre (6,592,800 sq mi), Roushie is the mucklemaist kintra in the warld, coverin mair nor ane-echth ay the earth's inhabited lain aurie. Roushie is the warld's nint maist populoos naition wi 143 million fowk as ay 2012. Stendin athwart the hale ay northren asia, Roushie spans nine time zones an incorporates a wide range ay environments an landforms. Roushie haes the warld's lairgest reserves ay mineral an' energy resoorces an' is the lairgest producer ay ile an' naitural gas globally. Roushie haes the warld's lairgest wid reserves  an' its lochs conteen thareby ane-quarter o the warld's liquid caller watter.

Th' naition's history began wi' 'at ay th' eest slavs, fa emerged as a recognizable crew in europe atween th' 3rd an' 8t centuries ad. Foondit an' ruled bi a varangian warriur elite an' thair descendants, th' medieval state ay rus arose in th' 9t century. in 988 it adoptit orthodox christianity frae th' byzantine empire, beginnin' th' synthesis ay byzantine an' slavic culturs 'at defined Roushie cultur fur th' neist millennium. Rus' ultimately disintegrated intae a feck ay smaer states; maist ay th' rus' lands waur overrin bi th' mongol invasion an' becam tributaries ay th' nomadic Gowden Horde. Th' grain duchy ay moscaw gradually reunified th' surroondin' Roushie principalities, achieved unthirldom frae th' Gowden Horde, an' cam tae dominate th' cultural an' poleetical legacy ay Kievan Rus'. Bi th' 18t hunneryear, th' naition hud greatly expanded ben conquest, annexation, an' exploration tae acome th' Roushie empire, that wis th' third lairgest empire in history, stretchin' frae Polain in Europe tae Alaska in North Americae.

Follaein' th' Roushie revolution, th' Roushie Soviet federatife socialist republic becam th' lairgest an' leadin' constituent ay th' Soviet Union, th' warld's first constitutionally socialist state an' a recognised superpower, whilk played a decisife role in th' allied victory in warld war ii. th' Soviet era saw some o th' maist significant technological achievements o th' 20t century, includin' th' warld's first human spaceflecht. th' Roushie Federation becam th' successur state o th' Roushie sfsr followin' th' dissolution o th' Soviet Union in 1991, an' is recognised as th' continuin' legal personality o th' aw-union state.

Th' Roushie economy is th' warld's nint lairgest bi nominal gdp an' saxt lairgest bi purchasin' power parity, wi' th' 3rd lairgest nominal military budgit. Roushie is ane o th' warld's fastest growin' majur economies. It is ane o th' fife recognised nuclear wappens states an' possesses th' lairgest stockpile o wappens o mass destruction. Roushie is a stoatin pouer an' a permanent member o th' Unitit Nations security cooncil, a member o th' G8, G20, th' Cooncil o Europe, th' Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, th' Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, th' Eurasian Economic Community, th' Organisation fur Security an' Cooperation in Europe (osce), th' Warld Tred Organisation (wto), an' is th' leadin' member o th' commonwealth o independent states

The airts aboot Moscow becam pairt o tha Kievan Rus Empire in the 800's AD. The Ceety-states o Vladimir-Suzdal an Novgorod becam independent whan Kievan Rus gat waiker. Vladimir Suzdal is conseedert the stairt o Roushae. Bi 1300, Kievan Rus wis waik, an the Mongols syne invadit. Roushae wad be ruled bi the Mongols for ower 200 year. In this time, Moscow, that haed stairtit oot as a wee veelage in Vladimir-Suzdal, becam the maist pouerfu o the Roushae Ceety-States. Ivan the Great o Moscow unitit the smaa Roushae Ceety-States, an bi 1471, Novgorod the maist pouerfu o the Roushae ceety-States wis annext in Moscow. Moscow wis aye still a puppet o the Mongol's Gowden Horde, tho thay becam independet bi 1480. The Gowden Horde sindert intae the Crimean Khanate, Kazan Khanate, Astrakhan Khanate, an Siberie Khanate.

Ivan the Terrible conquered the Kazan Khanate, an the Astrakhan Khanate bi 1550, haily endin Mongol rule in the hail o Roushae. In 1580, Yermak Timofeyevich gaed tae the Siberie Khanate wi 1636 men for tae tak owerins o't. He got close, but drount in the Irtysh River in 1584. Houaniver, Mair Roushae sodgers gaed tae Siberia an it wis owerhailt bi 1600. The Cossacks cam ower Loch Baikal bi 1610.

Frae 1598 til 1610 wis the time o tribbles for Roushae, an Poland invadit an capturt Moscow in 1607. The Poles wis beaten oot o Moscow, but thay still wun some laund. Roushae conteenad tae rax intae Siberia, an foondit the fort o Yakutsk in 1637, an 2 year efter raxed tae the Sea o Okhotsk. Roushae syne gaed on tae owerhail Chukotka an Kamchatka. Thay ettled tae grip owerins ower Cheenae laund, but failt, an haed tae gree no tae attack Cheenae in 1689.

In the 1720's, Peter the Great makkit Roushae a pouerfu kintra, an haed owerins ower Swadish laund. He biggit a new cceety, cried Saunt Petersburg. It wis the caipital o Roushae frae 1712 til 1918. Roushae annext the Crmian Khanate in the 1780's. It wis the last o the Mongol Khanates tae be annext bi Roushae. Georgie, Ukraine an Kazakhstan becam pairt o Roushae an aw, an Poland wiz conquered bi an alliance o Roushae, Proushie, an Austrick bi 1800. In 1808, Finland wis owerhailt bi the Roushie.

Napoleon invadit in 1810, an won til Moscow. He wis suin defeatit bi the Roushie, tho. Roushie wis syne a pouerfu kintra, an conquered Turkestan. Thay taen some laund frae Cheenae in 1858, an foundit the ceeties o Khabarovsk an Vladivostok. In 1900, Roushae tak ower the hail o Manchurie for a whilie, but wis defeatit bi Japan in 1905. Roushie wis becomin waik.

Whan the World War I happent, Rousshie wis invadit bi Germany. The Roushie Govrenment wis malafoustert in 1917, an a Ceevil War brak oot, tho thay war at peace wi Germany nou. In 1922, Vladimir Lenin unitit the kintra, e'en tho ither kintra ettelt tae hinder him. He wis the first Communist leader. Bi the time he dee'd, in 1924 Roushie wis rebiggit frae the wars. It wis renamed the Soviet Union. Efter Lennin, Josef Stalin wis leader till 1953. He makkit the economy strang wi 5 year plans, an bi 1939, it wis a strang kintra. He wis allee'd tae Germany, first, but Germany invadit in 1941. The Soviet Union tint aw the land aboot Moscow. The Germans failt tae owerhail Moscow, an ettelt tae attack Stalingrad. Thay faild thare an aw, an wis defeatit bi the Soviet Union in 1945. Stalin rebiggit the kintra bi his daith in 1953. Nikita Khrushchev becam leader, but unlik Stalin he wantit peacefu coexistenc wi the Wast. The Soviet Union conteenad tae growe. In 1965 He wis follaed bi Leonid Brezhnev. The Soviet Union wis the strangest naition in the warld bi thon time, Whan he dee'd in 1982, the kintra wis gettin waik. Efter Yuri Andropov (1982-1984) an Konstantin Chernenko (1984-1985) cam Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-1991). Mikhail Gorbachev wis the hintmaist Soviet leader.

Roushie wis the lairgest o the fifteen republics that made up the Soviet Union, accoontin for ower 60% o the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) an ower 50% o the Soviet population. Roushies dominatit the Soviet military an the Communist Pairty (CPSU) an aw. Syne, Roushie wis widely acceptit as the Soviet Union's successor state in diplomatic affairs an it assumit the USSR's permanent membership an veto in the UN Security Cooncil




#Article 247: Cape o Guid Howp (197 words)


The Cape o Guid Howp (, Dutch: , ) is a rocky headland on the Atlantic coast o the Cape Peninsula, Sooth Africae.
Thare is a misconception that the Cape o Guid Howp is the soothren tip o Africae, acause it wis ance believed tae be the dividin point atween the Atlantic an Indian Oceans. In fact, the soothrenmaist point is Cape Agulhas, aboot 150 kilometres (90 mi) tae the east-sootheast. The Atlantic an Indian oceans meet at the point whaur the warm-watter Agulhas current meets the cauld-watter Benguela current an turns back on itsela point that fluctuates atween Cape Agulhas an Cape Point, aboot ane kilometre east o the Cape o Guid Howp.

When follaein the wastren side o the African coastline frae the equator, housomeivver, the Cape o Guid Howp marks the point whaur a ship begins tae traivel mair eastward than soothward. Sicweys the first roondin o the cape in 1488 bi Portuguese splorer Bartolomeu Dias wis a milestane in the attempts bi the Portuguese tae establish direct tred relations wi the Far East. Dias cried the cape Cabo das Tormentas. Cape o Tempests wis the oreeginal name o the Cape o Guid Howp.




#Article 248: Draigon (364 words)


A draigon is a lairge, serpent-lik leegendar craitur that appears in the fowklair o mony culturs aroond the warld. Beliefs aboot draigons vary drastically bi region, but draigons in wastren culturs syne the Heich Middle Ages hae eften been depictit as weenged, horned, fower-legged, an capable o braithin fire. Draigons in eastren culturs are uisually depictit as wingless, fower-legged, serpentine craiturs wi abuin-average intelligence.

The earliest attestit draigons resemmle giant snakes. Draigon-lik craiturs are first descrived in the meethologies o the ancient Near East an appear in auncient Mesopotamie airt an leeteratur. Stories aboot storm-gods slayin giant serpents occur ootthrou nearly aw Indo-European an Near Eastren mythologies. Famous prototeepical draigons include the mušḫuššu o auncient Mesopotamie, Apep in Egyptian meethologie, Vṛtra in the Rigveda, the Leviathan in the Ebreu Bible, Python, Ladon, Wyvern, an the Lernaean Hydra in Greek meethologie, Jörmungandr, Níðhöggr, an Fafnir in Norse meethologie, an the draigon frae Beowulf.

The popular wastren eemage o a draigon as weenged, fower-legged, an capable o braithin fire is an invention o the Heich Middle Ages based on a conflation o earlier draigons frae different tradeetions. In wastren cultures, draigons are portrayed as monsters tae be tamed or owercome, uisually bi saunts or cultur heroes, as in the popular leegend o Saunt George an the Draigon. Thay are eften said tae hae ravenous appetites an tae live in caves, whaur thay huird treisur. Thir draigons appear frequently in wastren fantasie leeteratur, includin The Hobbit bi J. R. R. Tolkien, the Harry Potter series bi J. K. Rowling, an A Song of Ice and Fire bi George R. R. Martin.

The wird draigon haes an aw come tae be applee'd tae the Cheenese lung (龍, Pinyin long), that are associatit wi good fortuin an are thocht tae hae pouer ower rain. Draigons an thair associations wi rain are the soorce o the Cheenese customs o draigon dancin an draigon boat racin. Mony East Asie deities an demigods hae dragons as thair personal moonts or companions. Draigons war an aw identifee'd wi the Emperor o Cheenae, that, in later Cheenese imperial history, wis the anerly ane permittit tae hae draigons on his hoose, cleidin, or personal airticles. 




#Article 249: Hivy (beer) (298 words)


Hivy is the tradeitional thick, daurk, strang beer o Scotland. Waiker Scots ales is cryed licht, an isna as common.

Aatho it's richt sert at room temperatur, it's aften sert chilled the day, in bottles, cans, pints or hauf-pints. Hivy is a hertie beer, kin o sweet, less shairp nor some ither kinds o ale.

Hivy is gradit bi the shillin unner a seestem uised syne the 1870s for tae shaw the amoont o alcohol: the heicher the shillin merk /- is, the stranger or hivier the beer is.

Baith o the maist weel-kent Scots breweries, McEwan’s an Tennents, maks monie diffferent hivies: McEwan’s Special an Tennent’s Velvet is kinds o 70/- ale, the biggest seller.

The 80/- varieties is mair rich and flavourfu. The maist notit mass-mercat version is McEwan's Export, packaged in its distinctive reid livery. It's cryed export acause Scots brewers wis the first tae perfect the technique o India Pale Ale, that first alloued beer to be transportit ower lang distances, oreiginally tae Indie.

The 90/- varieties shuid be teuk in moderation an traet wi respect. 

Forbye the mass-produced kenmerks, the'r plenty hivies makkit bi smaa, unthirlt brewers:

Local micro-breweries is beginnin tae kythe again aa ower the kintra, for exemplar at Aviemore, the Black Isle, Arran, Skye, Orkney an Shetland. 

The'r a specialised, gey strang (6.0-10.0% abv) variety cryed wee heavy or scotch ale, that's gradit at 160/-, an that tradeitionally gaes throu a lang byle in the kettle for caramelisation tae happen. This maks a copper-coloured brew. Compared wi ither hivies thay ar sweeter an mair fou-bodied, wi a roastit maut gust. Tradeitionally sert in a thristle-shapit gless, near-haund aa o it is export, maistlins tae Belgium. A scotch in Brussels means ane o thae smaa, strang Scots beers, no a whisky.




#Article 250: The Hop (154 words)


St Margaret's Hup, kent locally as The Hop, is a clachan in the Orkney Islands, situate aff the north-aest coast o Scotland. It is Orkney's third maist muckle settlement, efter Kirkwa an Stromness. It haes a population o aboot 550, an is placed at the heid o a sheltered bey at the north end o Sooth Ronaldsay, aff Water Soond. It is Sooth Ronaldsay's main veelage, an is named efter Margaret o Norrowey that dee'd there. The veelage haes a primary schuil, a smaw blacksmith's museum, a nummer o shops an restaurants includin the merkit Creel Inn. A ferry service rins tae Gills Bey on the Scots mainland three times a day, wi an average time o an oor ae-wey.

It is kent for its annual Boys' Plouin Match an aw, a local tradeetion whaur young lads plous in the saunds at the nearby Saund o Wricht, an young lasses weirs tradeetional 'horse' costumes.




#Article 251: Tokyo (178 words)


Tokyo (Japanese: 東京, Tōkyō, aestren caipital) is the hame tae the Japanese govrenment an the emperor, makkin it the Caipital o Japan. It is the naition's maist populous urban aurie an aw (12 million fowk, or aboot 10 percent o the kintra's population, bides in Tokyo) an ane o the 47 prefecturs o Japan.

Tokyo is locate in the Kanto region on the island o Honshu. Its centre is at 35°41' North, 139°46' Aest (35.68333, 139.7667), but its borders extends tae ootlyin islands in the Paceefic Ocean, some sae hyne awa as 1,000 km sooth o the mainlaund.

Tokyo is north-wast o Tokyo Bay, an is aboot 90 km aest-tae-wast an 25 km north-tae-sooth. It borders Chiba Prefectur tae the aest, Yamanashi Prefectur tae the wast, Kanagawa Prefectur tae the sooth, an Saitama Prefectur tae the north. Forby thon it conseests o islands in the Paceefic Ocean directly sooth—the Izu Islands is closest, while the Ogasawara Islands raxes ower 1,000 km awa fae mainland Japan.

Tokyo haes elieven sister ceeties/states:

In addition, Tokyo haes a pairtnership agreement wi:




#Article 252: Pechts (150 words)


The term Pechts (, modern , ) refers tae the tribes that Mediterranean clessical-era writers pit in Caledonie, whit itsel comprises the pairt o praisent-day Scotland north o the Forth an Clyde.

Pecht first kythes in a panegyric written bi Eumenius in AD 297. Tho Picti is for ordinar taen tae mean 'pentit' or 'tattoo'd' in Laitin, the term micht hae a Celtic oreegin. The Goidelic Celts micht hae cried the Pechts cruithne (e.g. Auld Erse cru(i)then-túath, foondit on the auld Erse ruit cruth Early Welsh *kwriteno-teutā) or the mair modren pryd or  prydyn as the Brythonic Celts were kent. Geoffrey o Monmouth cried tham Huns.

In Scots fowklore, the Scots leid is frae the Pechts, no frae Ingls. Pecht leid, the predecessor to the Scots leid, wis a Germanic leid allied tae Auld Ingls. This theory, advancit in 1710 bi Sir Robbert Sibbald remains lore amang muckle Scots speakers.




#Article 253: Cruithne (351 words)


The Cruithne or Cruthin wis historical fowk that dwalt in Ireland, in parteecular Ulster, in early medieval times.

Gaun by T. F. O'Rahilly's historical model, the Cruithne wis the descendants o the Priteni, that O'Rahilly argies wis the first Celtic group tae dwall in the Breetish Isles, an identifee's them as the Pechts o Scotland. They settelt in Breetain an Ireland atween 700 an 500 BC. They uised airn an spak a P-Celtic leid, cryin thirsels Priteni or Pritani, whit is aiblins the oreegin o the name Breetain.

In Breetain thir Priteni wis absorbed bi later invaders an tint their cultural identity but in the faur north whaur they wis kent tae the Romans as Picti, or “pentit fowk,” acause o their practice o decoratin their bouk wi pent or tattoos (a haunt that had dee'd amang ither Celtic tribes at the time). In Ireland an aw, the Priteni wis tae the maist pairt absorbed bi later settlers; but a puckle o them managed tae haud on tae a meisur o cultural, gin no poleetical, independence weel intae the Christian era. Bi thon time they wis identifee'd as Cruithne, a Q-Celtic cognate o Priteni.

Amang the Cruthnian tribes that survived wis the Loíges an Fothairt in Leinster. The name o the seicont o thir tribes - modrenised as Laois - haes been revived an gien tae ane o the coonties o Leinster (syne kent as Queen's Coonty).

Cruithne is the name o the Pechts in Scots Gaelic.

Some fowk jalouses that the Scots wird creenie cam fae this, bein uised as a contemptous wird for a race o stumpy, daurk fowk that bade in the Rhinns o Gallowa. Fae thon it haes been applee'd tae fowk fae Ireland. A mair liklier etymology is that its juist a form o the wird crine meanin skrinkit. Anither wird that haes been uised for daurk haired Irish fowk is Gossocks. Some threaps this comes fae Welsh gwasog, a kynd o servand. That isna likely acause that means the wird maun hae survived at least nine centuries throu the Gaelic an Scots-speakin times o Gallowa.




#Article 254: Nether-Saxon (316 words)


Nether-Saxon (For ordinar cryed Nedersaksisch in the Netherlands, Plattdüütsch, Nedderdüütsch or Neddersassisch in Germany an Plautdietsch by the Roushie Mennonite), is a name for the regional leid varieties o the Laich Germanic leids that's tae the maist pairt spak in the north o Germany, the sooth o Denmark an the east Netherlands. Forby thon there's immigrant communities in a wheen airts athort the warld, sic as Canadae.

The ISO 639-2 langage code for Nether-Saxon is nds syne Mey 2000.

Syne 1999, Nether-Saxon haes been recogneesed by Germany as a regional leid gaun bi the European Chairter for Regional or Minority Langages.

In Germany, North Nether-Saxon sers as a common intelligible langage on TV an Wireless programmes.

Nether-Saxon is pairt o the Wast Germanic dialect continuum.

Tae the Wast, it gaes ower intae the Laich Franconian langages that disteenguishes twa plural verbal endins, as agin the ae common verbal plural endin in Nether-Saxon.

Tae the Sooth, it gaes ower intae the Heich Germanic dialects o Middle German that's been affectit by the Heich German consonant shift. The diveesion is for ordinar merkit at the Benrath line that traces the maken – machen isogloss.

Tae the East, it is neeboured by the East Laich German language.

Tae the North an Northwast, it is neeboured by Dens an by Frisian. Merk that in Germany, Nether-Saxon haes replaced the Frisian in mony airts sae that the Saterland Frisian is hailie surroondit by Nether-Saxon.

Some clessifee the northren dialects o Nether-Saxon thegither wi Scots, English an Frisian as the North Sea Germanic or Ingvaeonic langages. Houaniver, maist excludes Nether-Saxon frae that group aften cried Anglo-Frisian langages.

Auld Saxon wis the forebeir o Nether-Saxon recorded frae aboot 800 tae 1100.

Middle Nether-Saxon wis the forebeir o Nether-Saxon recorded frae aboot 1100 tae 1500. It wis the lingua franca o the Hanseatic League, spak aw aboot the German Ocean an the Baltic Sea.




#Article 255: Republic o Ireland (521 words)


Ireland or Airlann (Erse: Éire), deskrived as the Republic o Ireland (or Republick o Airlann in Ulstèr-Scotch) (Erse: Poblacht na hÉireann), is a kintra in wastren Europe, wi a population o mair nor 4 million. It maks up maist o the iland o Ireland, an haes a mairch wi Northren Ireland, pairt o the Unitit Kinrick. It is a unitar, pairlamentary republic. The legislatur, the , consists o a lawer house, , an upper house, , and an elected Preses () that serves as the lairgely ceremonial heid o state, but wi some important pouers an duties. The heid o govrenment is the  (Prime Meenister, leeterally 'Chief', a teetle nae uised in Inglis), that is electit bi the Dáil an appointit bi the President; the Taoiseach in turn appynts ither govrenment meenisters.

The state wis creatit as the Erse Free State in 1922 as a result o the Anglo-Erse Treaty. It haed the status o Domeenion till 1937 whan a new constitution wis adoptit, in that the state wis named Ireland and effectively becam a republic, wi an electit non-executive preses as heid o state. It wis offeecially declared a republic in 1949, follaein the Republic of Ireland Act 1948. Ireland becam a member o the Unitit Naitions in December 1955. It jynt the European Economic Community (EEC), the predecessor o the European Union, in 1973. The state haed na formal relations wi Northren Ireland for maist o the twentiet century, but in the 1980s an 1990s the Breetish an Erse govrenments wirkit wi the Northren Ireland pairties taewart a resolution tae the Tribbles. Syne the signin o the Guid Fryday Greement in 1998, the Erse govrenment an Northren Ireland Executive hae co-operatit on a nummer o policy auries unner the North-Sooth Meenisterial Cooncil creatit bi the Greement.

Ireland ranks amang the tap twenty-five walthiest kintras in the warld in terms o GDP per capita, an as the tent maist prosperous kintra in the warld accordin tae The Legatum Prosperity Index 2015. Efter jynin the EEC, Ireland enactit a series o leeberal economic policies that resultit in fest economic growthe. The kintra achieved conseederable prosperity atween the years o 1995 an 2007, that becam kent as the Celtic Teeger period. This wis hautit bi an unprecedentit financial creesis that begoud in 2008, in conjunction wi the concurrent global economic crash. Houiver, as the Erse economy wis the festest growin in the EU in 2015, Ireland is again quickly ascendin league cairts comparin walth an prosperity internaitionally. For ensaumple, in 2015, Ireland wis rankit as the jynt saxt (wi Germany) maist developit kintra in the warld bi the Unitit Naitions Human Development Index. It an aw performs weel in several naitional performance metrics, includin freedom o the press, economic freedom an ceevil leeberties. Ireland is a member o the European Union an is a foondin member o the Cooncil o Europe an the OECD. The Erse govrenment haes follaed a policy o militar neutrality throu non-alignment syne immediately prior tae Warld War II an the kintra is consequently nae a member o NATO, awtho it is a member o Pairtnership for Peace.




#Article 256: Aiple (222 words)


The aiple tree (Malus pumila, commonly an erroneously cried Malus domestica) is a deciduous tree in the rose faimily best kent for its sweet, pomaceous fruit, the aiple. It is cultivatit warldwide as a fruit tree, an is the maist widely growed species in the genus Malus. The tree originatit in Central Asie, whaur its wild auncestor, Malus sieversii, is still foond the day. Aiples hae been growed for thoosands o years in Asie an Europe, an war brocht tae North Americae bi European colonists. Aiples hae releegious an meethological signeeficance in mony culturs, includin Norse, Greek an European Christian tradeetions.

Aiple trees are lairge if growed frae seed. Generally aiple cultivars are propagatit bi graftin ontae ruitstocks, which control the size o the resultin tree. Thare are mair nor 7,500 kent cultivars o aiples, resultin in a range o desired chairactereestics. Different cultivars are bred for various tastes an uises, includin cuikin, eatin raw an cider production. Trees an fruit are prone tae a nummer o fungal, bacterial an pest problems, which can be controlled bi a nummer o organic an non-organic means. In 2010, the fruit's genome wis sequenced as pairt o resairch on disease control an selective breedin in aiple production.

Warldwide production o aiples in 2014 wis 84.6 million tonnes, wi Cheenae accoontin for 48% o the tot.




#Article 257: Zoroastrianism (114 words)


Zoroastrianism is a releegion fae Iran, forbye mony follaers bide in Indie (whaur they're kent as Parsis) an ither pairts o the warld. The releegion's based on the teachins o the prophet Zarathushtra (kent as Zoroaster an Zartosht an aa), an haes atween 100,000 an 200,000 follaers. Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic releegion, an micht hae had an influence on aucient Judaism, whan the Jews wir held captive in Babylon.

Zoroastrians believe that Ahura Mazda creatit aahin, forbye it can be seen or no. The Zoroastrian holy beuk is the Avesta. The auldest pairt, the Gathas (meanin sangs or hymns), wis scrievit bi Zoroaster himsel an talks aboot devotion tae nae god bit Ahura Mazda.




#Article 258: New Zealand (488 words)


New Zealand ( ) is a sovereign island kintra in the soothwastren Paceefic Ocean. The kintra geografically comprises twa main landmasses—the North Island (Te Ika-a-Māui), an the Sooth Island (Te Waipounamu)—an aroond 600 smawer islands. New Zealand is situatit some  east o Australie athort the Tasman Sea an reuchly  sooth o the Paceefic island auries o New Caledon, Fiji, an Tonga. Acause o its remoteness, it wis ane o the last launds tae be settled bi humans. In its lang period o isolation, New Zealand developit a distinct biodiversity o ainimal, fungal, an plant life. The kintra's varied topografie an its shairp moontain peaks, such as the Soothren Alps, awe muckle tae the tectonic uplift o laund an volcanic eruptions. New Zealand's caipital ceety is Wellington, while its maist populous ceety is Auckland.

Sometime atween 1250 an 1300, Polynesies settled in the islands that later war named New Zealand an developit a distinctive Māori cultur. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman becam the first European tae sicht New Zealand. In 1840, representatives o the Unitit Kinrick an Māori chiefs signed the Treaty o Waitangi, that declared Breetish sovereignty ower the islands. In 1841, New Zealand becam a colony within the Breetish Empire an in 1907 it becam a Domeenion; it gained full unthirldom in 1947, but the Breetish monarch remeened the heid o state. The day, the majority o New Zealand's population o 4.7 million is o European strynd; the indigenous Māori are the lairgest minority, follaed bi Asies an Paceefic Islanders. Reflectin this, New Zealand's cultur is mainly derived frae Māori an early Breetish settlers, wi recent braidenin arisin frae increased immigration. The offeecial leids are Inglis, Māori an NZ Sign Leid, wi Inglis bein verra dominant.

New Zealand is a developit kintra an ranks heichly in internaitional comparisons o naitional performance, sic as quality o life, heal, eddication, an economic freedom. The kintra unnerwent major economic chynges in the 1980s, that transformed it frae a pertectionist tae a leeberalised free-tred economy. The service sector dominates the naitional economy, follaed bi the industrial sector, an agricultur. Internaitional tourism is a signeeficant soorce o revenue.

Naitionally, legislative authority is vestit in an elected, unicameral Pairlament, while executive poleetical pouer is exercised bi the Cabinet, led bi the Prime Meenister, that is currently Jacinda Ardern. Queen Elizabeth II is the kintra's heid o state an is representit bi a govrenor-general, currently Dame Patsy Reddy. In addeetion, New Zealand is organised intae 11 regional cooncils an 67 territorial authorities for local govrenment purposes. The Realm o New Zealand an aw includes Tokelau (a dependent territory); the Cook Islands an Niue (sel-govrenin states in free association wi New Zealand); an the Ross Dependency, that is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarcticae. New Zealand is a member o the Unitit Naitions, Commonweel o Naitions, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation an Development, ASEAN Plus mechanism, Asie-Paceefic Economic Cooperation, an the Pacific Islands Forum.




#Article 259: Hogmanay (360 words)


Hogmanay is a Scottish haliday that faws on 31 December, the hindermaist day o the year. The nicht o Hogmanay stairts the lang celebration o the new year o the Gregorian calender, wi twa baunk halidays follaein, for ordinar on 1 an 2 Januar.

The oreegins o Hogmanay ar unclear but it micht derive frae Gaelic an Norse observances. Customs vary athort Scotland, an fur usual include gift exchangin an peyin visits tae friends an faimily, wi speicial attention bein gien tae the first-fitter, the first body throu the door in the New Year.

The oreegin o the wird is obscure. The aerliest proponed etymology wis in 1693 in the Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence that the wird is a corruption o the Greek  (), or haly month. The three main modren theories pit it forrit as bein aither a French, Gaelic or Norse ruit.

The wird is first recordit in a Latin entry in 1443 in the Wast Ridin o Yorkshire as . The first kythin in Inglis came in 1604 in the records o Elgin, as hagmonay. Forder 17t-yearhunner spellins include Hagmena (1677), Hogmynae night (1681), an Hagmane (1693) in an entry o the Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence.

Awtho Hogmanay is the dominant spellin an pronoonciation, mony variations o the name hae been recordit, includin:

wi the first syllable various being , , ,  or .

It micht hae come intae Middle Scots frae French. The maist common citit ensaumple is that it comes frae the northren French byleidal wird , or variants sic as ,  an , thon wirds comin frae the 16t yearhunner Middle French  meanin aither a gift gien at New Year, a bairn's cry for sic a gift, or New Year's Eve itsel.

The Hogmanay prattick o singin 'Auld Lang Syne' haes become common in mony kintras. 'Auld Lang Syne' is a tradeetional poem reinterpretit by Robert Burns, that wis syne pitten tae muisic. It is nou common for this tae be sung in a circle o cleekit airms that's crosst ower ane anither as the knock chaps midnicht for Ne'er's Day, awtho in Scotland the tradeetional practice is tae cross airms anerly for the last verse.




#Article 260: Shirley Clamp (136 words)


Shirley Natasja Clamp, born 17 Februar 1973, is a Swadish sangster fae Borås. She haes ettlet monie times tae represent her hame kintra at the Eurovision Sang Contest bi enterin sangs intae the Melodifestivalen, the naitional walin for Eurovision, but her heichest poseetion up til nou wis seicont in 2004. Houaniver, she wis a backin singer for Greece's entry at the Eurovision Sang Contest 2001, Die for You bi Antique, feenishin in thrid poseetion.

The name Shirley she got frae her faither Colin who is Breetish an wantit tae give her a name that coud no mak Swadish. Her mither is Anita an her aulder sister is Tania. Shirley Clamp is cohabitin wit Daniel Ottosson an the couple lives in a hoose in Stockholm. On 15 Julie 2008 the couple's dochter Vilja Ottosson Clamp wis born.




#Article 261: Economics (143 words)


Economics is a social science concerned chiefly wi description an analysis o the production, distribution, an consumption o guids an services.

Economics focuses on the behaviour an interactions  o economic augents an hou economies wirk. Microeconomics analyzes basic elements in the economy, includin individual augents an mercats, thair interactions, an the ootcomes o interactions. Individual augents mey include, for ensaumple, hoosehauds, firms, buyers, an sellers. Macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy (meanin aggregatit production, consumption, savins, an investment) an issues affectin it, includin unemployment o resoorces (labour, caipital, an laund), inflation, economic growthe, an the public policies that address thir issues (monetary, fiscal, an ither policies).

Ither braid distinctions athin economics include thae atween positive economics, descrivin what is, an normative economics, advocatin whit shoud be; atween economic theory an applee'd economics; atween raitional an behavioural economics; an atween mainstream economics an heterodox economics.




#Article 262: No pruiven (314 words)


No Pruiven (Not proven in Inglis) is a verdict that can be gien bi a coort in Scotland. Unner Scots law, juries decidin creeminal trials haes three verdicts that thay can retour; Guilty, No guilty an No Pruiven.

The No Pruiven verdict states that the coort hauds the procurator didna pit forrit eneuch evidents o pruif, raither nor that the defender wisna connectit ava wi the crime; the coort is statin that thare's eneuch conseederable dout anent the wytit defender's innocence.

The affcome o this aesome verdict is the same as ane o No Guilty, in that the defender is lowsed athoot punishment or creeminal record. It fends protection frae dooble jeopardy an aa. The effect on public opeinion can be gey different, houaniver, as it suggests that the defender is thocht tae be guilty but wis juist lowsed acause the procurator haedna gaithered eneuch evidents.

An example o this can be fund in 19t century Glesca.  Socialite Madeline Smith is braidly seen as haein been fund guilty o murther. The case wis no pruiven, but Smith is aye popularly thocht o as a convict murtheress.

In the een o the law, a No Pruiven verdict is the same as a No Guilty verdict. Houaniver, a No Pruiven verdict, o coorse, can tache the repute of the defender afore the coort.

Senator Arlen Specter votit No Pruiven in the impeachment o Bill Clinton, citin Scots law. This wis byordinar acause No Pruiven isna a verdict that's tae haund unner Unitit States creeminal or ceevil law. Specter later wrat, History winna say the preses wisna guilty, altho he wis enteitelt tae acqueetal acause the chairges wisna pruiven at a Senate trial, but historians will sling a deifie tae William Jefferson Clinton's brazen conceit that it wis aa Republican politeicians an a richt-wing conspeeracy.

No Pruiven is aften cryed the Scots (or Scottish, or Scotch) Verdict.




#Article 263: Address to the Haggis (337 words)


The haggis is a tradeetional Scots dish memorialised as the national dish o Scotland bi Robert Burns' poem Address to a Haggis in 1787. It is recited afore mony a Burns supper. Durin Burns Nicht, abody staunds as the haggis is brocht in, fur usual on a muckle dish bi the chef whiles a bagpiper leads the wey tae the host's table. The host, or aiblins a guest, will then recite the poem.

Fair fa' your honest, sonsie face,  
Great chieftain o' the pudding-race! 
Aboon them a' yet tak your place, 
Painch, tripe, or thairm: 
Weel are ye wordy o'a grace 
As lang's me arm.

The groaning trencher there ye fill, 
Your hurdies like a distant hill, 
Your pin wad help to mend a mill 
In time o'need, 
While thro' your pores the dews distil 
Like amber bead.

His knife see rustic Labour dight, 
An' cut you up wi' ready sleight, 
Trenching your gushing entrails bright, 
Like ony ditch; 
And then, O what a glorious sight, 
Warm-reekin', rich!

Then, horn for horn, they stretch an' strive: 
Deil tak the hindmost! on they drive, 
Till a' their weel-swall'd kytes belyve 
Are bent like drums; 
Then auld Guidman, maist like to rive, 
Bethankit! hums. 

Is there that owre his French ragout 
Or olio that wad staw a sow, 
Or fricassee wad make her spew 
Wi' perfect sconner, 
Looks down wi' sneering, scornfu' view 
On sic a dinner? 

Poor devil! see him owre his trash, 
As feckles as wither'd rash, 
His spindle shank, a guid whip-lash; 
His nieve a nit; 
Thro' blody flood or field to dash, 
O how unfit! 

But mark the Rustic, haggis-fed, 
The trembling earth resounds his tread. 
Clap in his walie nieve a blade, 
He'll mak it whissle; 
An' legs an' arms, an' heads will sned, 
Like taps o' trissle. 

Ye Pow'rs, wha mak mankind yer care, 
And dish them out their bill o' fare, 
Auld Scotland wants nae skinking ware 
That jaups in luggies; 
But, if ye wish her gratefu' prayer 
Gie her a haggis!




#Article 264: Dominica (168 words)


Dominica, (  ) offeecially the Commonweel o Dominica, is an island naition in the Caribbean Sea. Tae the north-northwast lies Guadeloupe, tae the sootheast Martinique. Its size is 750 square kilometres (290 sq mi) an the heichest pynt in the kintra is Morne Diablotins, which haes an elevation o 1,447 metres (4,747 ft). The Commonweelt o Dominica haes an estimatit population o 72,500. The caipital is Roseau.

Dominica haes been nicknamed the Nature Isle o the Caribbean for its seemingly unspoiled naitural beauty. It is the yungest island in the Lesser Antilles, still bein formed bi geothermal-volcanic activity, as evidenced bi the warld's seicont-lairgest boilin lake. The island features lush muntainous rainforests, hame o mony rare plant, ainimal, an bird species. Thare are xeric auries in some o the wastren coastal regions, but hivy rainfall can be expectit inland. The Sisserou Parrot (cried the Imperial Amazon an aa), the island's naitional bird, is featurt on the naitional banner. Dominica's economy is hivily dependent on baith tourism an agricultur.




#Article 265: Arctic Monkeys (147 words)


Arctic Monkeys is a fowersome indie rock baund frae High Green, a suburb o Sheffield. Thair debut single, I Bet You Look Good On the Dancefloor, an the follae-up When The Sun Goes Down, gaed richt tae nummer ane in the UK Singles Chairt. The baund's debut album, Whatever People Say I Am, That's What I'm Not, hauds the record for the maist first-week sales o a debut album fer a baund in the UK. The baund's northren ruits, aften seen as a key element o the baund's style, haes seen thaim cryed the northren Libertines, while thair aesome soond an wry leerics - aften social commentaries - haes been compared tae The Jam, Pulp an The Streets.

Thay'r weel kent for thair uiss o the internet for tae mercat thairsels, throu viral mercatin.

Estaiblished in 2002, the baund conseists o:-

Offeicial steids

Fan steids

Ither airtins




#Article 266: Islam (410 words)


Islam (Arabic: الإسلام or al-islām, submission) is a monotheistic Abrahamic releegion foondit on the life an teachins o Mohammad in the VIIt century, in Arabie. The fowk that follaes this releegion is cried Muslims. Muslims cry God Allah, bat hae 99 different names fur God an aw. The haly beuk o the Muslims is ca'd the Quran. Islam is the warlds 2nt lairgest releegion wi mair nor 1,000,000,000 follaers.

Muslims trowe Moses, Abraham, an Jesus, wha they caw Musa, Ibrahim, an Isa, an ithers, wis prophets, forby.

Muslims believe that the Quran is the revealed wird o God an the Prophet Mohammad is the feenal Prophet sent bi God tae reveal His message tae mankynd.

In the 7t Century AD the Byzantine an Sassanide Empires wis the twa mucklest pouers in whit is cried the Middle East the day. Bedouin Arab merchands wad cross the desert tae touns lik Damascus fae Arab trade centres sic as Makka (or Mecca as its cried the nou) an Yathrib (later tae be re-cried Madina, or ceety).

In places siclike Sirie, Iraq an Egyp, whaur nouadays Arabie leids is spaken, Pre Islamic civilisations haed been aroond lang syne. Throu the Gowden Age o Islam (atween aboot 900 AD an 1300) touns like Damascus an Baghdad becam important centres o scienteefic an philosphical discovery. Mony texts that haed been lang tint tae the Wast o Europe, wis pitten ower fae the Greek intae the Arabie (an in Islamic Spain intae the Laitin an aw)

Ane o the mair typical practics uised bi the Muslims whilka are ca'd Abrahamic, are the circumcision o the penis. They awso hae the ritual o the killin o the sheep, ca'd Al 3Aid, whilka exists in the twa Abrahmic beuks, baith Bible an Quran. This custom finds place in auld Abrahamic tradeetions an Biblic history.

Feegurs sic as Plato, Galen an Pythagoras wis reintroduced throu the Arabie leid. Translators an ither scholars teached in Seecily an Spain, at the new Varsities o Palermo an Cordoba, the first European Varsities, syne the closin o the Pagan schuils bi the Kirk in the sae cried Daurk Ages. Ither feegurs, sic as Ibn Sinna (kent as Avicenna in the Wast) an Ibn Rushd (or Averoes) eikit oreeginal thochts an ideas tae the contreebution o Islam's scholarship tae post Roman Europe.

Maist Muslims thinks it's wrang tae draw the prophet Muhammad or Allah. Acause o this, Islamic airt is aft gey geometric an abstract.




#Article 267: Cheenae (region) (354 words)


Cheenae is a muckle kintra in Asie. Syne the Cheenese Ceevil War, Cheenae haes been splitten intae the lairger Communist Fowkrepublic o Cheenae (on the Cheenae mainlaund) an the smawer Republic o Cheenae on the island o Taiwan. Cheenae is ane o the maist auncient naitions in the warld, wi a heestory gaun back five thoosand year.

Baith the Republic an the Fowkrepublic threaps the hail o historical Cheenae territory as its ain (includin the mainlaund an the island o Taiwan), but the Fowkrepublic haes muckle mair o an airmy nor the Republic dis. The Unitit States an Fowkrepublic o Cheenae haes guid relations an the'r muckle tred; houaniver, the USA uphauds the Republic o Cheenae's richt tae exeest, an haes hecht tae weir the smaw Republic frae ony onding frae the Fowkrepublic. Forby thon, the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae haes owerins ower Hong Kong (that uisst tae be Breetish), an Macao (that uisst tae be Portuguese). Hong Kong an Macao haes been alloud haud wi a caipitalist economic seestem (unner the Ae kintra, twa seestems preenciple), but thay're aye poleetically thirlt tae the Fowkrepublic. The Fowkrepublic is becomin mair caipitalist an aw, an its ecomomy growes bi 9% the year, but the kintra bides offeecially communist, an aw poleetical pouer is sucken tae the Communist Pairtie o Cheenae. The Fowkrepublic set on an occupee'd Tibet in 1950; the Free Tibet Muivement haes mony uphauders aw oot-throu the warld. The Mongols that bides in Ooter Mongolie is aften wantin reunitit wi Mongolie. 

The caipital ceety o the Fowkrepublic is Beijing, and its maist muckle ceety is Shanghai. Xi Jinping is Preses o the Fowkrepublic an General Secretar o the Communist Pairtie. 

The caipital ceety o the Republic is Taipei. The Preses o the Republic is Ma Ying-jeou, frae the Cheenae Nationalist Pairty (Kuomintang/KMT).

合久必分,分久必合 : « Unitit Cheenae will divide itself ; wantoned, it'll recompose itself ». (History o The Thrie Kinricks)

It haes becom syne the Qin Dynasty a vast zone politicly unitit awso lingueesticly, wi an advancit cultur, devancin the rest o the kintras in som things like airts, medicine an technic sciences.




#Article 268: Atom (2513 words)


An atom is the smawest consteetuent unit o ordinary matter that haes the properties o a chemical element. Ivery solit, liquid, gas, an plasma is componed o neutral or ionised atoms. Atoms are very smaw; teepical sizes are aroond 100 picometres (a ten-billiont o a metre, in the short scale).

Atoms are smaw eneuch that attemptin tae predict thair behaviour uisin clessical physics - as if thay war billiard baws, for ensaumple - gies noticeably incorrect predictions due tae quantum effects. Throu the development o physics, atomic models hae incorporatit quantum principles tae better expleen an predict the behaviour.

Ivery atom is componed o a nucleus an ane or mair electrons boond tae the nucleus. The nucleus is made o ane or mair protons an teepically a seemilar nummer o neutrons. Protons an neutrons are cried nucleons. Mair nor 99.94% o an atom's mass is in the nucleus. The protons hae a positive electric chairge, the electrons hae a negative electric chairge, an the neutrons hae na electric chairge. If the nummer o protons an electrons are equal, that atom is electrically neutral. If an atom haes mair or fewer electrons nor protons, then it haes an oweraw negative or positive charge, respectively, an it is cried an ion.

The electrons o an atom are attractit tae the protons in an atomic nucleus bi this electromagnetic force. The protons an neutrons in the nucleus are attractit tae ilk ither bi a different force, the nuclear force, which is uisually stranger than the electromagnetic force repellin the positively charged protons frae ane anither. Unner certaint circumstances the repellin electromagnetic force acomes stranger nor the nuclear force, an nucleons can be ejectit frae the nucleus, leavin behind a different element: nuclear decay resultin in nuclear transmutation.

The nummer o protons in the nucleus defines tae what chemical element the atom belangs: for ensaumple, aw copper atoms conteen 29 protons. The nummer o neutrons defines the isotope o the element. The nummer o electrons influences the magnetic properties o an atom. Atoms can attach tae ane or mair ither atoms bi chemical bonds tae form chemical compoonds sic as molecules. The abeelity o atoms tae associate an dissociate is responsible for maist o the physical chynges observed in naitur, an is the subject o the discipline o chemistry.

The idea that matter is made up o discrete units is a very auld idea, appearin in mony auncient culturs sic as Greece an Indie. The wird atom wis creatit bi auncient Greek filosofers. Houiver, thir ideas war foondit in filosofical an theological raisonin raither nor evidence an experimentation. As a result, thair views on whit atoms leuk lik an hou thay behave war incorrect.

In the early 1800s, John Dalton uised the concept o atoms tae expleen why elements ayeweys react in ratios o smaw hale nummers (the law o multiple proportions). Dalton believed atomic theory coud expleen why watter absorbs different gases in different proportions an aw. For ensaumple, he foond that watter absorbs carbon dioxide faur better nor it absorbs nitrogen. Dalton hypothesized this wis due tae the differences atween the masses an configurations o the gases' respective pairticles, an carbon dioxide molecules (CO2) are hivier an lairger nor nitrogen molecules (N2). In 1827, botanist Robert Brown uised a microscope tae leuk at dist grains fleetin in watter an discovered that thay muived aboot erratically, a phenomenon that acame kent as Brownian motion. This wis thocht tae be caused bi watter molecules knockin the grains aboot. In 1905, Albert Einstein pruived the reality o thir molecules an thair motions bi producin the first Stateestical physics analysis o Brownian motion. French physicist Jean Perrin uised Einstein's wark tae experimentally determine the mass an dimensions o atoms, thareby conclusively verifeein Dalton's atomic theory.

The physicist J. J. Thomson meisurt the mass o cathode rays, shawin thay war made o pairticles, but war aroond 1800 times lichter nor the lichtest atom, hydrogen. Tharefore, thay war nae atoms, but a new pairticle, the first subatomic pairticle tae be discovered, that he oreeginally cried corpuscle but wis later named electron, efter pairticles postulatit bi George Johnstone Stoney in 1874. He shawed thay war identical tae pairticles gien off bi photoelectric an radioactive materials an aw. It wis quickly recognised that thay are the pairticles that cairy electric currents in metal weirs, an cairy the negative electric chairge within atoms. Thomson wis gien the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for this wark. Sicweys he owerturned the belief that atoms are the indivrrsible, ultimate pairticles o matter. Thomson incorrectly postulatit that the law mass, negatively chairged electrons wra distributed ootthrou the atom in a uniform sea o positive chairge an aw.

In 1909, Hans Geiger an Ernest Marsden, unner the direction o Ernest Rutherford, bombardit a metal foil wi alpha pairticles tae observe hou thay scaitert. Thay expectit aw the alpha pairticles tae pass straicht throu wi little deflection, acause Thomson's model said that the chairges in the atom are sae diffuise that thair electric fields coud nae affect the alpha pairticles muckle. Houiver, Geiger an Marsden spottit alpha pairticles bein deflectit bi angles greater nor 90°, that wis supposed tae be impossible accordin tae Thomson's model. Tae expleen this, Rutherford proponed that the positive charge o the atom is concentratit in a tottie nucleus at the centre o the atom. Rutherford compared his findins tae ane firin a 15-inch shell an it comin back tae hit the person wha fired it.

While experimentin wi the products o radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that thare appeared tae be mair nor ane teep o atom at ilk poseetion on the periodic cairt. The term isotope wis coined bi Margaret Todd as a suitable name for different atoms that alang tae the same element. J.J. Thomson creatit a technique for separatin atom teeps throu his wark on ionised gases, that subsequently led tae the discovery o stable isotopes.

In 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proponed a model in that the electrons o an atom war assumed tae orbit the nucleus but coud anerly dae sae in a finite set o orbits, an coud jimp atween thir orbits anerly in discrete cheenges o energy correspondin tae absorption or radiation o a photon. This quantisation wis uised tae expleen why the electrons orbits are stable (gien that normally, chairges in acceleration, includin circular motion, lose kinetic energy that is emittit as electromagnetic radiation, see synchrotron radiation) an why elements absorb an emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra. Later in the same year Henry Moseley providit addeetional experimental evidence in favour o Niels Bohr's theory.

In 1924, Louis de Broglie proponed that aw pairticles behave tae an extent lik swaws. In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger uised this idea tae develop a mathematical model o the atom that descrived the electrons as three-dimensional swawforms raither nor pynt pairticles. The development o the mass spectrometer allaed the mass o atoms tae be meisurt wi increased accuracy. The device uises a magnet tae bend the trajectory o a beam o ions, an the amoont o deflection is determined bi the ratio o an atom's mass tae its chairge. The chemist Francis William Aston uised this instrument tae shaw that isotopes haed different masses. The atomic mass o thir isotopes varied bi integer amoonts, cried the hale nummer rule. The explanation for thir different isotopes awaitit the discovery o the neutron, an unchairged pairticle wi a mass seemilar tae the proton, bi the physicist James Chadwick in 1932.

In 1938, the German chemist Otto Hahn, a student o Rutherford, directit neutrons ontae uranium atoms expectin tae get transuranium elements. Insteid, his chemical experiments shawed barium as a product. A year later, Lise Meitner an her neffae Otto Frisch verifee'd that Hahn's result war the first experimental nuclear fission. In 1944, Hahn received the Nobel prize in chemistry. Despite Hahn's efforts, the contreibutions o Meitner an Frisch war nae recognised.

Tho the wird atom oreeginally denotit a pairticle that canna be cut intae smawer pairticles, in modren scienteefic uissage the atom is componed o various subatomic pairticles. The constituent pairticles o an atom are the electron, the proton an the neutron; aw three are fermions. Houiver, the hydrogen-1 atom haes na neutrons an the hydron ion haes na electrons.

The electron is bi faur the least massive o thir pairticles at , wi a negative electrical chairge an a size that is too smaw tae be meisurt uisin available techniques. Protons hae a positive chairge an a mass 1,836 times that o the electron, at . The nummer o protons in an atom is cried its atomic nummer. Neutrons hae na electrical chairge an hae a free mass o 1,839 times the mass o the electron, or , the hiviest o the three constituent pairticles, but it can be reduced bi the nuclear bindin energy.

Baith protons an neutrons are composite pairticles componed o elementary pairticles cried quarks. Thare are twa teeps o quarks in atoms, ilk haein a fractional electric chairge. Protons are componed o twa up quarks (ilk wi chairge +) an ane doun quark (wi a chairge o −). Neutrons conseest o ane up quark an twa doun quarks. This distinction accoonts for the difference in mass an chairge atween the twa pairticles. The quarks are held thegither bi the strang interaction (or strang force), that is mediatit bi gluons.

Aw the boond protons an neutrons in an atom mak up a tottie atomic nucleus, an are collectively cried nucleons. The radius o a nucleus is approximately equal tae 1.07  fm, whaur A is the tot nummer o nucleons. This is muckle smawer nor the radius o the atom, that is on the order o 105 fm. The nucleons are boond thegither bi a short-ranged attractive potential cried the residual strang force. At distances smawer nor 2.5 fm this force is muckle mair pouerfu nor the electrostatic force that causes positively chairged protons tae repel ilk ither. The proton, the electron, an the neutron are clessifee'd as fermions.

The electrons in an atom are attractit tae the protons in the nucleus bi the electromagnetic force. This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential wall surroondin the smawer nucleus, that means that an freemit soorce o energy is needit for the electron tae escape. The closer an electron is tae the nucleus, the greater the attractive force. Hence electrons boond near the centre o the potential wall require mair energy tae escape nor thae at greater separations.

Bi defineetion, ony twa atoms wi an identical nummer o protons in thair nuclei alang tae the same chemical element. Atoms wi equal nummers o protons but a different nummer o neutrons are different isotopes o the same element. For ensaumple, aw hydrogen atoms admit exactly ane proton, but isotopes exist wi no neutrons (hydrogen-1, bi faur the maist common form, cried protium an aw), ane neutron (deuterium), twa neutrons (tritium) an mair nor twa neutrons.

Aboot 339 nuclides occur naiturally on Yird, o that 254 (aboot 75%) hae nae been observed tae decay, an are referred tae as stable isotopes. Houiver, anerly 90 o thir nuclides are stable tae aw decay, even in theory. Anither 164 (bringin the tot tae 254) hae nae been observed tae decay, even tho in theory it is energetically possible.

The lairge majority o an atom's mass comes frae the protons an neutrons that mak it up. The tot nummer o thir pairticles (cried nucleons) in a gien atom is cried the mass nummer. It is a positive integer an dimensionless (insteid o haein dimension o mass), acause it expresses a coont. An ensaumple o uise o a mass nummer is carbon-12, that haes 12 nucleons (sax protons an sax neutrons). The actual mass o an atom at rest is eften expressed uisin the unifee'd atomic mass unit (u), cried dalton (Da) an aw. As even the maist massive atoms are faur too licht tae wirk wi directly, chemists insteid uise the unit o moles. Ane mole o atoms o ony element ayeweys haes the same nummer o atoms (aboot Avogadro constant|). This nummer wis chosen sae that if an element haes an atomic mass o 1 u, a mole o atoms o that element haes a mass close tae ane gram.

Atoms lack a well-defined ooter boondary, sae thair dimensions are uisually descrived in terms o an atomic radius. This is a meisur o the distance oot tae that the electron clood extends frae the nucleus. Whan subjectit tae fremmit forces, lik electrical fields, the shape o an atom mey deviate frae spherical symmetry. The deformation depends on the field magnitude an the orbital teep o ooter shell electrons, as shawn bi group-theoretical conseederations.

Atomic dimensions are thoosands o times smawer nor the swawlenths o licht (400–700 nm) sae thay canna be viewed uising an optical microscope. Houever, individual atoms can be observed uisin a scannin tunnelin microscope. Tae veesualise the size o the atom, consider that a teepical human hair is aboot 1 million carbon atoms in weenth. A single drap o watter conteens aboot 2 sextillion () atoms o oxygen, an twice the nummer o hydrogen atoms.

Ivery element haes ane or mair isotopes that hae unstable nuclei that are subject tae radioactive decay, causin the nucleus tae emit pairticles or electromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity can occur whan the radius o a nucleus is lairge compared wi the radius o the strang force, that anerly acts ower distances on the order o 1 fm.

The maist common forms o radioactive decay are:

Elementar pairticles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property kent as spin. This is analogous tae the angular momentum o an object that is spinnin aroond its centre o mass, awtho strictly speakin thir pairticles are believed tae be pynt-lik an canna be said tae be rotatin. Spin is meisurt in units o the reduced Planck constant (ħ), wi electrons, protons an neutrons aw haein spin ½ ħ, or spin-½.

At temperaturs close tae absolute zero, atoms can form a Bose–Einstein condensate, at which pynt quantum mechanical effects, that are normally anerly observed at the atomic scale,becom apparent on a macroscopic scale. This super-cuiled collection o atoms
then behaves as a single super atom, that mey allae fundamental checks o quantum mechanical behaviour.

The scannin tunnelin microscope is a device for viewin surfaces at the atomic level. It uises the quantum tunnelin phenomenon, that allaes pairticles tae pass throu a barrier that wad normally be insurmoontable. Electrons tunnel throu the vacuum atween twa planar metal electrodes, on ilk o that is an adsorbed atom, providin a tunnelin-current density that can be meisurt. Scannin ane atom (taken as the tip) as it muives past the ither (the saumple) permits plottin o tip displacement versus lateral separation for a constant current. The calculation shaws the extent tae that scannin-tunnelin-microscope eemages o an individual atom are veesible. It confirms that for law bias, the microscope eemages the space-averaged dimensions o the electron orbitals athort closely packed energy levels—the Fermi level local density o states.




#Article 269: True Jesus Kirk (257 words)


The True Jesus Kirk is an independent indeeginous Kirk that stairtit oot in Beijing, Cheenae an it wis foondit bi Paul Wei in 1917. Its current Preses is Yung-Ji Lin. The kirk haes aboot atween 1.5 tae fower million follaers in fowerty kintras aa ower the warld an is conseidered a Cheenese affshuit o the Pentecostal brainch o Christianity that emerged throu the stairt o the 1900s. 
The kirk disagrees wi Treenity an hauds tae Aneness Pentecostal theolgy insteid. In 1978, immigrants frae Hong Kong estaiblished the kirk in Edinburrie, Scotland.. 

The Baptist, that haes aareadies recieved bapteesm o watter an the Haly Speerit, conducts the bapteesm in the name o the Laird Jesus Christ.
The kirk believes that the body resievin the bapteesm be haily immersed intae watter wi the heid bowed an face dounwart.

It sers as a constant mynder that a body shoud gie luv, haliness, hummlenes, forgieness an service.

Ilka body that haes recieved watter bapteesm shoud hae their feet wuishen in the name o Jesus Christ. Mutual feet washin micht aye be practiced whaniver is richt.

It allous us tae partak o the flesh an bluid o oor Laird an tae be in communion wi Him sae that we can hae eternal life an be raised on the Last Day. 
This sacriment is hauden sae aften as possible. Anerly ae unleavened bap an grape juice is uised.

Later on in the 1980s, mair wis eikit tae thir five main doctrines for tae become the 10 basic beliefs o the True Jesus Kirk:




#Article 270: Muisic (1343 words)


Muisic is soond that is makkit by humans for tae be haerd deleeberate-like bi ither humans. Muisic includes singin an playin wi muisical instruments, gif thay are wuid, bress, string or percussion.

Thare monie sindrie styles o muisic the warld ower.

The airt o muisic is the jynin o, or the aesome uisse o aether vocal or instrumental soonds for tae ootgie an express emotion.

Forordinar this wad align itsel wi local an cultural staundarts o rythym, melodie an harmonie.

Wi the fouth o muisical genre athort the warld, whuther hit is cryed fowk muisic o the maist hamelt furm, or the maist complex o electronic composeitions, aw o thir are upmakkit bi humans for auditory pleisure an ilkane o thir styles throu oot the warld is cryed muisic.

Muisic can eith like adapt itsel tae poyetry an sang alang wi dancin, an oot throu human heistory haes been o gret importance baith tae ritual an drama.

Nooadays muisic is aye tae the fore wi exploitin sic human emotions, at are seen maistweys throu Televeision, Radio, Theatre an the Internet.

Alsae, wi its abeility tae effect emotions bein weill kent, it is uised in baith psychotherapy an for the betterment o monie mental ills, an espeically wi geriatric anes.

A muisical tone wes regairdit for common in the aerlie pairt o the 20t Century as bein characterized bi hou aften its dirl wes haerd. This uniformity gied it a fixed pitch at sindered it frae noise.

Bi the saicont hauf o the 20t Century sic a norrie wes conseidered auld farrant hooanevir, an noise, an betimes silence wad becum pairt o the modren composeition.

Forby tone, the'r ither components o muisic, siclike timbre, rythym an texture, an wi the oncome o electronic machinery in muisic allouin some composers tae upmak non tradeitional wirks, soond coud noo be recordit direct like ontil tapes or digital files.Soonds that war aforehaund unbekent an impossible, war noo tae becum reality.

Muisic haes aye haed the pouer tae kittle up feelins o ecstacy wi fowk throu oot the centuries. Frae heistorical accoonts, we hae this idaias frae Auld Warld Indie .

The uisse o muisic in releigion gies us Vedic Hymns frae the auncient scripturs o Hinduism an is aiblins the auldest Vocal tradeition frae lang syne an gaes back as monie as 3000 year.

Sic an airt haes growne ower monie century intil a profoond an melodic discipline. Melled wi the releigious text an structur bonnielie expressed bi the narrators skeill.
Sic vocal skeill staunds peels wi onie ane o the muisical instruments pleyin alangside it.

The'r nae gret sibness here wi Wastren style muisic an the complexity o melody gangs faur abuin onie o wir Wastren models.

Atween the narrator/Sangster an the instrumentalist the'r aften spontaneous mimicin o soond at can staund conter tae the stot an rythym o the drums. This can kittle gret excitement, brocht on bi lealtie tae the rules o Raga, the auncient melodic pattrens o Indien Muisic.

Sib tae Indien muisic is Chinee muisic, at haes tradeitionally been jyned bi Narrative an ceremony alsae.

The faur kent Chinee Philosopher Confucius (541-479 BCE) gied muckle importance tae muisic, athin the morality o wir Universe.

He sayed at Govrenment an muisic stuid aqual wi ither, an onlie fowk wi guid ken o muisic war able for tae Govren fowk. Alsa he believed at muisic gangs in harmony wi the universe, eikin order tae wir physical warld throu sic harmony. He addit, Truelins muisic reflecks character, an maks pretence an swickerie impossible.

Muisic wes o muckle importance in Auncient Greece whaur baith muisicianers an sangsters war aye at the for athin Greek theatre.

In eddication muisic wes alsae important an frae sax year auld boys war leared i the skeill. Sich leiteracy in muisic alloued a fouth o developments.

The day we see baith at Releigous Muisic an Classical Muisic cam frae Greek muisic theory an The Greek muisical modes.

Efterhaund, The Rouman an Byzantine Impires an aa gied influence tae Greek muisic alang wi influence frae Eastren Europe.

The auldest ensaumple o muisical composeition alang wi muisical notation we hae the day is cryed The Seikilos Epitaph.

The auldest screed on the subjeck o muisical theory is cryed Harmonika Stoicheia bi Aristoxenus.

Ken o muisic athin the Bible an the Biblical Period is taen maistlins frae leiteral soorces, an aftimes Post Biblical soorces forbye.

Heistorian o Releigion an Muisic Herbert Lockyer Jr tells us o muisic at wes baith vocal an instrumental an wes growthie amang The Hebrews, New Testament Christians an The Christian Kirk oot throu the centuries. Mairatowre, he airts us tae The Auld Testament an hou God's auncient fowk war devote tae baith the study o, an the pleyin o muisic.

Learit scholars o Muisic an Theatre at hiv studied the anthropologie o Semitics an aerlie Judeo Christian cultur hae discuivered common threids atween theatrical an muisical acteivities athin the Classical culturs o The Greeks an The Romans.

For common we finnd performance in a social phenomena cryed Litany. A kinnd o prayer at intaks a series o Invocations or Supplications.

The Jurnal o Releigion an Theatre says that amang the maist aerlie furms o Litany, Hebrew litany wes accompanied bi rowthie muisical tradeition.

Durand the Middle ages we hae The Medieval Era at stairts wi the ontak o the singil melodic line, or monophonic chantin oot throu the services bi The Roman Catholic Kirk. Sic muisical notation haed been uised sen lang syne wi Auncient Greek cultur.

It is wi the middle ages houanevir at we hae an innin tae notation bi The Catholic Kirk, allouin for sic chants melodies tae be scrievit doon, an sicwyce forderin the uisse o the selsame melodies oot throu The hail Catholic Impire.

The anely European Medieval repertoire we hae in written furm frae afore 800 CE is the monophonic Liturgical Plainsang chant o The Roman Catholic Kirk, or whit is aiblins better kent as Gregorian Chants.

Forbye thir tradeitions o Kirk muisic we hae secular sang, betimes cryed (Non Releigious Sangs).

The maist weill kent composers o the time war Léonin, Perotin, Guillame de Machant an Walter von der Vogelweide.

The wird renaissance is a Frainch wird at means re-birth, an anent muisic it wes an era o splore an discuivery at in taks the years atween 1400 an 1600.

The aforehaund middle ages period wes a time whan The Roman Catholic Kirk haed owerance o awmaist aw o fowks lifes, an maist muisic wes Kirk reekit an thirled tae thon wi maist composeitions based upo the Plain Chairt that haed been uised frae aerlie Christianity.

Tho maistlins The Catholic Kirk haed control o muisic durand the renaissance period, it did lowse poleitical control ower society at wad allou freedom for composers tae tak influence frae The Airts, Classical Mythologie, Astronomie an Mathematics forbye.

Wi the upmak o prentin graith, scrievit muisic wes able for tae be furthset an distribute widely for the first time.

The ettle for maist muisic wes for it tae be sung, aether bi choirs in The Kirks, or wi sangs or Madrigals.

Muisic athoot vocals wes tae flouer an aa, an wi the forderin o technology we hae speceific wrutten muisic for a wheen o mair agile instruments, the like o The Lute.

The feck o composers i The Aerlie Renaissance haed cam frae the Netherlands an Northren Fraunce. This wes adae wi the backs gien thaim frae thair ain Ryal Coorts.

Efterhaund, sic composin airts war tae spreid oot intil ither pairts o Europe as the success o The Italien Ceitie State taen haud, allouin for monie a Northren Composers tae ventur Sootharts for tae seek oot walth.

A wheen Italien composers haed cam tae Venice at The Basilica o St Marks. Andrea an Giovanni Gabrieli haed furthset braw muisic pieces for muckle choirs an instruments.

Allegri an Palestrina in Roum war tae scrieve whit aiblins wad be conseidered the hinmaist wirk o renaissance composers, wi thair lairge choral wirk at aye kittles the lugs day.




#Article 271: Makar (140 words)


A makar in Scots leeteratur is a poet or bard, aften pairt o the ryal coort. The wird makar refers tae the craft o writin poetry (keek at scop forby).

For ordinar the Scots Makars refers til a Scots leid leeterar genre o the late Middle Ages.

In modren Scotland, The Scots Makar (cutty mak: The Makar) is the Scots' naitional poet, appyntit by the Scots Pairlament, an the equeevalent o the English Poet Laureate. Syne 2004, the Makar haes been Edwin Morgan.

William Dunbar, a foregane Makar, wrate the Lament for the Makaris.

The maist weel kent o the makars wis John Barbour, Blind Harry (cried Henry the Minstrel an aw), Robert Henryson (or Henrysoun), William Dunbar, Gavin Douglas an David Lindsay but there wis mony mair o them that shoud be mynt an aw, sic as Alexander Scott.




#Article 272: William Dunbar (501 words)


William Dunbar (c. 1460 − c. 1520), Scots makar, wis maist likely hameborn til East Lowden.

Dunbar's name kythes in 1477 in the Register o the Faculty o Airts at Sanct Andrew's, amang the Determinants or Bachelors o Airts, an in 1479 amang the maisters o the varsity. Tharefter he jyned the order o Observantine Franciscans, at varsity o Sanct Andrews or Edinburgh, an gaed on tae Fraunce as a wanderin freir. He spent a few years in Picardy, an wis still abreed whan, in 1491, Bothwell's meesion tae siccar a bride for the young James IV o Scotland reached the French coort. Thon is nae direct evidents that he gaed wi Blackadder, heidbeeshop o Glesca, on a seemilar embassy tae Spain in 1495. On the ither haund, we ken that he gaed wi that prelate til England on his mair successfu meesion in 1501.

Dunbar haed in atween times (aboot 1500) returned tae Scotland, an haed becam a priest at the coort, an a ryal pensioner. His leeterar life begins wi his attachment tae James's hoosehauld. Aw that is kent o him fae this date til his daith aboot 1520 is derived fae the poems or fae entries in the ryal registers o peyments o pension an grants o livery. He is spoken o as the Rhymer o Scotland in the accoonts o the Inglis privy cooncil dealin wi the veesit o the meesion for the haund o Margaret Tudor, raither for he wrat a poem in praise o Lunnon, nor for, as haes been statit, he haud the post o laureate at the Scots coort. In 1511 he gaed wi the queen til Aiberdeen an commemoratit her veesit bi writin a poem aboot it. Ither pieces sic as the Orisoun (Quhen. the Gouernour past in Fraunce), apropos o the settin oot o the regent Albany, is o historical interest, but thay tell us little mair nor Dunbar wis alive. The date o his daith isna kent for shuir. He is named in Lyndsay's Testament and Complaynt of the Papyngo (1530) wi poets that wis deid at the time, an the reference foregangs that tae Douglas wha haed dee'd in 1522. He certies survived his ryal patron. We michtna be far oot in sayin he dee'd aboot 1520.

Dunbar haes the cuirious disteenction o haein been responsible for the first prentit uiss o the wird fuck: his 1503 poem Brash of Wowing includes the lines: Yit be his feiris he wald haif fukkit:/ Ye brek my hairt, my bony ane. He sicweys estaiblished a lang an noble tradeetion that some creetics o James Kelman or Irvine Welsh appears no tae ken. The pouerfu wird that Dunbar pit intae prent in 1508 wisna made lawfu till 1960.

For the Scots Renaissance in the mid-20t century, William Dunbar wis a touchstane. Mony fowk tried tae copy his style, an hie brou subject maiter, sic as Hugh MacDiarmid an Sydney Goodsir Smith. As MacDiarmid himsel said, thay haed tae gang, back tae Dunbar.




#Article 273: Sport in Scotland (418 words)


Scotland haes mony naitional sportin associes, sic as the Scots Fitbaa Association (SFA) or the Scots Rugby Union (SRU). This gies the kintra its ain representation at mony internaitional sportin events sic as the Fitbaa Warld Cup. Scotland canna compete in the Olympic Gemmes itsel tho, an Scots athletes maun compete as pairt o the Great Breetain team gin thay want tae tak pairt. Houaniver Scotland dis send its ain team tae compete in the Commonweal Gemmes.

Fitbaa is the maist popular sport, baith for playin an watchin. The Scots Fitbaa Associe is the seicont auldest naitional fitbaa associe in the warld an the Scots Cup is the warld's auldest naitional trophy. Forby Scotland haes its ain sportin competitions apairt frae the lave o the UK. The main fitbaa competeetions is the leagues organised bi the Scots Premier League an the Scots Fitbaa League. Teams in the Hieland Fitbaa League, the East o Scotland Fitbaw League an the Sooth o Scotland Fitbaa League competes in the Scots Cup an aw, while the Scots Junior Fitbaa Association is ootwi that structur. Scots fitbaa clubs compete in internaitional competeetions, sic as the UEFA Europa League an the Champions League, baith o which hae been won bi Scots clubs.

The Scots Rugby Union is responsible Rugby in Scotland. Regional Scots rugby clubs competes forby in the Celtic League, alang wi teams frae Ireland an Wales an in the Heineken Cup, the European League for Rugby Union. Mony ither teams play in the twa divisions o the Scots Premiership.

Shinty is rin bi the Camanachd Association an is played for the maist pairt in its Hieland hertland, but in maist o the varsities an ceeties an aw.

The toun o St Andras is the hame o gowf an the rules wis set bi the toun's Royal and Ancient Golf Club in 1897. Scotland is weel kent the warld ower for its mony links coorses.

Scotland is the hame tae curlin an aw. Forby it's no sae popular the day as it is in Canadae, it's aye mair popular in Scotland nor it is in ony o the ither launds in Europe.

Scotland haes the warld's auldest caitchpule (for real tennis) whaur a few fowk plays caitch.

Snooker, hockey, basketba an tennis, is aw gey popular as weel. Thare is e'en aboot 12,000 cricketers in Scotland. It isna juist a sport for the Inglis altho thare is a guid few Scots fowk that thinks it is, as Scotland pleys as an Inglis Coontie.




#Article 274: Fitba (576 words)


Fitba (), is a gemme or sport played by twa teams on a rectangular pairk (aboot 110 by 70 yaird) wi dales (24 by 8 feet) at the twa ends. The twa teams haes 11 players. 10 o the players rins aw ower the park an tries tae kick or heid the baw intae the ither team's dale but canna uise thair haunds. The ither player plays in the dale an is kent as the goalkeeper. The goalie uises his haunds in an 18 yaird box aboot the goal for tae stap the baw fae gaun in. The team that haes the maist goals efter 90 meenits wins the gemme. The players is gien a brek o 10 or 15 meenits at hauf time.

Fitba is the tap sport in maist pairts o the warld and is the maist popular sport in Scotland. Houaniver, in pairts o Sooth Asie like Indie an Pakistan, fitba is a hail sicht less popular nor cricket. In Canadae an the Unitit States, ither sports is mair popular: American fitba, basebaw, basketbaw, an ice hockey. In pairts o the Caribbean fitba is less popular nor basebaw (in Spaingie-speakin kintras) or cricket (in Inglis-speakin kintras).

In monie kintras the best fitba players is gey famous an earns muckle amoonts o catter. Houaniver, acause fitba disna need muckle gear, it gets played by aw kynds o fowk for leisure as weel as for siller.

FIFA's Warld Cup ilka fower year, is the maist popular sportin event efter the Olympic Gemmes. Scotland hae qualified a nummer o times, but hivna iver gotten past the group stages. The current champions are Fraunce, who wan the 2018 tournament in Roushie.

UEFA's European Championship, or Euros as thay're maist weel-kent as, is ilka fower year. Portugal wan the 2016 tournament in Fraunce.

The tap fourty-twa teams in Scotland plays athin the Scottish Professional Football League, wi the tap team in Scotland an aw plays athin the UEFA Champions League. The ither semi-pro teams plays athin the Highland League in northren Scotland, the East of Scotland League in an aboot Edinburgh an the Mairches, the South of Scotland League in Dumfries an Gallowa, an 'ithin the Scottish Junior Football Association. The Scots naitional fitba team plays at Hampden Park in Glesgae. Thair follaers is kent as the Tairtan Airmy.

Players canna uise thair haunds or airms (a haundbaw), cept the goalkeepers; the goalie can uise thaim 'ithin thair ain penalty area (thare is an 18 yaird box aboot the goals at the twa ends o the park).

Players canna trip or dunt ane anither (a foul).

Players canna haud ane anither or hinder ither players gettin tae the baw (obstruction).

If a player pits the baw oot o play at the side o the park, the ither team gets tae thraw the baw back intae play (a thraw in).

If a player pits the baw oot o play at thair end o the park, the ither team kicks the baw back intae play fae ane o the neuks o the park (a corner kick);

If a player pits the baw oot o play at the ither end o the park, the ither team kicks the baw back intae play fae a 6 yaird box juist afore the goal (a goal kick);

The affside rule staps a player fae kickin or heidin the baw tae a teammate that juist haes the ither team's goalkeeper atween him an the goal.




#Article 275: Scottish Football League (767 words)


The Scots Fitbaa League (Inglis: Scottish Football League) is a league o fitbaw teams in Scotland.  It is dividit intae three diveesions ilkane o 10 clubs.  These are the Scots First Diveesion, Scots Seicont Diveesion an Scots Thrid Diveesion.  The league is kennt as the Irn-Bru Scottish Football League for sponsorship reasons.

The league was creatit in 1890 as a wey o giein the vast nummer o fitbaw teams in Scotland a mair consistent set o fixtures frae year tae year.  In it's first year, the teams competin in the league were:

Renton anely spielt five o thair fixtures in the first season for thay were forcit oot on the grunnd that thay spielt conter a perfaissional side.  Thay were readmittit the neist season.

O the teams abuin, but ane o thaim (Dumbarton) still plays in the league, in the thrid diveesion.  The rest are aither defunct or play in ither leagues across the kintra.  Tho anely ane o the oreeginal teams plays in the league itsel, this is acause o an up-brak o the league that saw the top ten (later twal) teams create the Scots Premier League that haes relegation tae the league.  Takin this intae acoont, the're five teams o the oreeginal eleiven that are still in the league structure: Celtic, Dumbarton, Herts, Rangers an St. Mirren.

The first season o the league saw Rangers an Dumbarton tie for the title efter a play-aff endit in a 2ndash;2 draw.  This was the first an anely time that the league was drawn, occurin acause there were nae thocht gied tae hou tae brek a tie.  Goal average an goal deeference were brocht in for the 1921ndash;22 an 1971ndash;72 seasons respectively.

The league split inta twa diveesions for the 1893ndash;94 season by the inclusion o a nummer o teams frae the Scots Fitbaa Alliance.  At this point there was nae automatic forderment atween the twas diveesions.  The process was o a ballot o the teams in each diveesion.

Houaniver, this new set-up didna last very long, wi the beginnin o World War I callin a halt tae the leagues.  A new seicont diveesion was startit for the 1921ndash;22 season that includit automatic forderment.  This was creatit by a strait absorbtion o teams frae the Central Fitbaa League.

In 1923, a thrid diveesion was creatit that lastit for juist three years afore it forcit tae withdraw due tae lairge financial losses.  This diveesion was made up o teams frae the Wastle Fitbaa League an a few ither teams frae elsewhaur.  Atween 1926 an 1946, the league haed tae retour tae a twa diveesion set-up wi the thrid diveesion no makin an appearance again til efter World War II.

The new three diveesions were renamit A, B an C.  Diveesion C includit the reserve teams o a few o the heicher diveesion sides.  In 1946, diveesion C was expandit an split inta twa - diveesion C North-Wast an diveesion C Sooth East.

In 1955, the reserve teams left diveesion C an it was disbandit wi the top five teams bein fordert tae diveesion B.  There were nou anely twa diveesions again, diveesion A haein 18 teams and diveesion B haein 19.  The diveesions were renamit Diveesion 1 an Diveesion 2 in 1956.  This format conteenat til the neist major chynge took place.

This chynge was in 1975 whan the league ance again split inta three diveesions that were kennt as the Premier, First an Seicont Diveesions.  This was tae allou the tapmaist teams in the league tae play mair gemmes conter ane-anither an less conter the wee-er sides.  A new club jynt the league at this time - Meidaebank Thristle (wha later chyngit thair name tae Livingston).  This structure o three diveesion an 38 teams was uised til 1994.

The first season wi fower diveesions was spielt in 1994 wi the diveesions cryt the Premier, First, Seicont an Thrid Diveesion.  Each diveesion haed ten teams wi Innerness Caledonian Thristle an Ross Coonty makin up the nummers.  This lastit a further fower year til, in 1998, the Premier Diveesion brochen awa frae the rest o the league tae create the Scots Premier League (SPL).

The last chynge took place in 2000 whan the Scots Premier League expandit tae twal teams.  This meant that the Scots Fitbaa League haed tae tak twa new teams: Peterheid an Elgin Ceety, baith frae the Hieland Fitbaa League.  This is the set-up that's in place the day.  The're 42 teams in aw - 12 in the Scots Premier League an 10 in each the first, seicont and thrid diveesions o the Scots Fitbaa League.




#Article 276: Rangers F.C. (274 words)


Rangers Football Club (or Glesga Rangers) is the maist successful fitba club in Scotland. Rangers play in the Scottish Premiership, which is the tap level ae the Scottish Professional Football League. The team plays thair hame gemmes at Ibrox Stadium n the sooth-wist ae Glesga.

Rangers wis the first club in the warld tae win mair vin 50 league championships. In 2011, they haud the wurld record for the nummer ae domestic league championships taen, efter rackin up 54 titles. Rangers hauds the record for domestic trebles, forby, wi sieven tae date. They won their 100t major trophy in 2000, the first club in the warld tae win tae that milestane. In 2013, they war the maist-honoured fitbaw club in the warld, haein taen 116 trophies aw thegither.

They hae played baith in Scotland's an England's naitional cup competeetions. Rangers won tae the semi-final ae the 1886-87 FA Cup, juist tae be knockit oot bi the winners.

Rangers is weel kent fur its sectarian problems, alang wi Celtic.

In the warld o Scotis fitbaw, sectarianism is a muckle issue, ruitit in social, cultural, historical  an religious circumstances. Ne'ertheless, baith Celtic an the Reengers accepts that they hae a problem wi sectarianism. Baith sides o the Auld Firm admeets that a pairt o thair supporters haes been, an conteenas tae be, guilty o haudin sectarian beliefs an cultural intolerance gaun.

In recent times baith Celtic an the Rangers haes taen meisurs tae fecht sectarianism. Warkin alangside the Scots Pairlament, kirk groups an communities, the Auld Firm haes clampit doun on sectarian sangs, inflammatory flag-wavin, an fashoius supporters, uisin mair muckle levels o policin an surveillance.




#Article 277: Celtic F.C. (1913 words)


Celtic fitbaw Club (soondit  or  in Glesga Scots) is a club, that's competin in the Scots Profeeshunal fitbaw Leegue the nou, the heichest form o competeition in Scotland. The club is based in the east end o the ceity o Glesga.

The club is offeicially nicknamed the Hoops. The team plays aw thair hame gemmes at Celtic Pairk (whiles kent as Paradise or Parkheid), an it's the maist muckle fitba grund in Scotland, an the seicont maist muckle club in the Unitit Kinrick. Celtic Pairk for ordinar attracts 57-60,000 fowk tae a hame gemmes an that means that Celtic is anerly seicont tae Manchester United in terms o average attendance records in Breetish fitba.

Alang wi thair rivals, Rangers F.C., Celtic haes been in amang Scots fitba for ower a 100 year as pairt o the Auld Firm, makkin it ane o the auldest, maist weel-kent an fiercest rivalries in sport. The club haes tradeitionally been identifee'd wi the Erse-Catholic fowk o Glesgae. Celtic's hame kit is green an white strippit taps, white shorts an white hose.

In 1967, the club becam the first Breitish team tae win the European Cup that haed anerly been won bi Italian, Portuguese an Spainyie clubs afore. Afore Celtics's historic win, nae ither club in the hale o Northren Europe haed won the European tournament afore.
Mair oot ower, Celtic bides the ae Scots club that's iver won tae the feinal, an is the ae club that's iver won the trophy wi a team o hame-grawn talent; a the players in the side war Scots, an aw wis born athin 30 mile o Celtic Pairk in Glesga.   Celtic, ance ower, wan til the European Cup feenal in 1970, juist tae be defeatit bi Feyenoord efter extra time.

Short syne in 2003 Martin O'Neill led the team tae the UEFA cup feinal in Seville whaur thay war nairae beat 3-2 bi F.C. Porto, ance mair, efter extra time. The bidin myndin o the feinal wis the green an white invasion o Seville. Ower 80,000 fans wis thocht tae hae been thare in tot includin flichts tae ither Spainyie an Portuguese airports an fans that wis incorporatin thair simmer halidays alang wi the trip. Ither fans e'en drove frae Glasgae tae Seville an aw. Due tae the guid naitur o baith Celtic fans an the locals, strang freendships cam aboot, an Celtic's fans wis honoured wi the 2003 Fair Play Awairds frae baith the UEFA an the FIFA.

Celtic haes a guid freendship wi monies a team athort the hale warld. Juist a puckle o the ithers that the Celtic team haes fund freendship wi wi ower the years is St. Pauli, Liverpool, Villarreal, Sevilla, Real Betis an Dinamo Zagreb. Thanks tae aw thae freendships Celtic haes monie fowk that follaes Celtic when thay play awa in Europe. Fowk frae kintras sic as Germany an Croatia is for ordinar seen amang the Celtic fans in Europe an is well kent an respectit.

Celtic Football Club wis foondit at a meetin in St. Mary's Roman Catholic Kirk haw on East Rose Street (nou Forbes Street), Calton, Glesga, bi an Erse Marist monk cried Brother Walfrid on 6 November, 1887.

The chairity establisht bi Brither Walfrid wis cried The Poor Childer's Dinner Table. Walfrid's ettle tae estaiblish the club as a wey fund raisin funds wis, tae the maist pairt, inspired bi the ensaumple o Hibernian F.C. that wis foondit bi immigrant Erse fowk a few year afore in Embra.

On the 28t o Mey 1888, Celtic played thair first offeicial gemme agin the Rangers an wan 5-2 in whit wis describit as a freendly encoonter. Celtic haed 8 'Guest' players frae Hibernian playin that day.

Celtic haes aye haen a historic association wi the fowk o Ireland an the Catholic Kirk. As an ootcome, the club an its supporters haes been embrylt in maiters adae wi sectarianism, alang wi Rangers. At its warst sectarianism haes manifestit itsel in support for paramilitaries in Norlin Airlan (the IRA an UVF) an sectarian veeolence; the reproduction o cultural prejuidices; an a perceived anti-Celtic agenda (see History o Celtic F.C.), that some fans believes tae be a pairt o a mair muckle anti-Catholic bias in Scotland (see Erse-Scots).

In the warld o Scotis fitba, sectarianism is oot the control o ony ae fitba club. It is a mair muckle issue, ruitit in social, cultural, historical  an religious circumstances.  Ne'ertheless, baith Celtic an the Reengers accepts that thay hae a problem wi sectarianism. Baith sides o the Auld Firm admeets that a pairt o thair supporters haes been, an conteenas tae be, guilty o haudin sectarian beliefs an cultural intolerance gaun.

In recent times baith Celtic an the Rangers haes taen meisurs tae fecht sectarianism. Warkin alangside the Scots Pairlament, kirk groups an communities, the Auld Firm haes clampit doun on sectarian sangs, inflammatory banner-wavin, an fashoius supporters, uisin mair muckle levels o policin an surveillance. In 1996, for instance, Celtic stairtit thair Bhoys Against Bigotry campaign, later follaed b Youth Against Bigotry tae educate the young on haein ... respect for aw aspects o the community - aw races, aw colours, aw creeds, accordin tae the then chief executive Ian McLeod.

Celtic hae aye ettelt tae engage direct wi the fans an bypass the tradeitional media ootlats as a wey o gettin mair accurate information tae the ootside warld aboot the inner warkins o the club.

Whan Jock Stein wis Celtic manager, he stairtit a trend in Breitish fitba that becam kent as the tracksuit manager, whaur he traint in public wi the playin staff an hostit media/press conferences.

In 1965 Celtic publisht the The Celtic View, the Unitit Kinrick's first e'er fitba club newspaper.

In 2004 Celtic lencht its ain deigital TV chainel Celtic TV available in the Unitit Kinrick throu Setanta Sports on satellite an cable. Syne 2002 Celtic's internet TV chainel, Channel67 (kent afore as Celtic Replay), haes braidcast Celtic's ain content oot ower the hale warld, fends live gemme coverage tae subscribers ootwi the Unitit Kinrick, an nou haes 3 online chainels.

Efter a draw in the openin gemme o the saison, Celtic rack up a recort-settin 25-gemme winnin run, nou a Breitish recort in tap-level fitba, giein Celtic a halthy lead in the teetle race. Celtic didna loss a gemme till efter the club's 39t championship wis won.

The 2003-2004 saison saw Celtic rack up fower league wins ower the Reengers an aw, an ane in the Scots Cup - the first time in aither club's history whan a five-match whitewash haed been won at.

Club hero Henrik Larsson played his feinal professional gemme for Celtic in the 2004 Scots Cup Final win ower Dunfermline, scorin twa goals, wi Bulgarian Stilian Petrov's goal follaein Larsson's goals tae owerturn an early setback, an haundin Celtic thair seiconi dooble unner Martin O'Neill.

Larsson is nou widely thocht tae be ane o the club's greatest e'er players, an ranks amang the tap three goalscorers in the club's history.

Follaein a close race for the SPL title, wi the Rangers follaewin close, the club raxed thair lead at the tap o the SPL table tae twa pynts as thay lined up for the feinal gemme o the saison, wi a win at Motherwell F.C. needit for tae win the title. Wi twa meenit left on the clock, Celtic wis winnin 1 ndash; 0 mdash; a result wthat wad hae haundit thaim the league.

Houe'er, Motherwell's Scott McDonald nettit twa feenal-meenit goals giein the Fir Pairk side a wanchancy veectory. Rangers defeatit Hibernian F.C. 1 ndash; 0 at Easter Road, winnin the league championship title forby. Earlier in the saison Celtic recordit a recort sievent straucht win ower ceity rivals the Rangers.

Celtic ended the saison ae week efter wi an 1ndash;0 win ower Dundee United F.C. in the Scots Cup Feinal, that wis merkit bi fans as Martin O'Neill's feinal gemme as manager.

On 25 May, 2005, O'Neill annoonced he wad staund doun as manager o Celtic at the end o the 2004/05 saison alang wi first team coach Steve Walford an asseistant manager John Robertson. It wis widely reportit that O'Neill decidit tae tak time oot o fitba for tae tak care o his seek wife Geraldine, wha is ill wi lymphoma.

Martin O'Neill is nou seen as as Celtic's maist successfu manager syne Jock Stein, third greatest efter Stein an Willie Maley an is creditit wi helpin tae restore some pride in Celtic's abeelity tae compete on the European stage.

Umwhile Aberdeen F.C. player an Scotland internaitional Gordon Strachan frae Embra teuk chairge o the club on the 1st o Juin 2005, on an ae year rowin contract, seemilar tae O'Neill's deal wi the club; his contract effectively extendin for ae year frae ony current date. Garry Pendrey wis appyntit as Strachan's asseestant manager.

In his first competitive match, agin Artmedia Bratislava on the 27 Julie 2005, Celtic lost 5-0 in the first leg o an important Champions League 2nt Roond qualifeer, sufferin thair maist muckle European defeat in the club's history an the widest mairgin o defeat syne the 1963-64 saison, whan the club lost 6-0 tae Kilmarnock F.C. at Rugby Pairk.

In Strachan's first domestic match o the 2005-2006 SPL saison, Celtic threw awa a 3-1 hauf-time lead ower Motherwell F.C. at Fir Pairk on 30 July 2005, the gemme endin in a 4-4 draw efter Celtic managed tae equalise throu a goal bi Craig Beattie.

The nine goals agin Celtic in Strachan's first twa competitive gemmes is the maist muckle goal tally scored agin the club in successive gemmes for 14 year.

In the return leg o the Champions League 2nt Roond qualifeer agin Artmedia at Celtic Park, Strachan's vastly improved side won 4-0 but wis knockit oot frae European competeition 5-4 on aggregait.

Houe'er, follaein thir setbacks, an a defeat agin the Rangers in the pair's first gemme o the saison at Ibrox, Celtic recordit a series o wins, includin beatin Rangers twice, an returned tae the tap o the SPL - a vast betterment o thair form at the stairt o the saison.

Celtic knockit airch rivals Rangers oot the League cup on the 19t o November 2005. Celtic wis knockit oot the Scots Cup on the 8t o Januar 2006 bi First Diveesion Clyde F.C.

Celtic beat Rangers again on the 12t o Februar tae mak it 17 wins frae the last 21 Auld Firm gemmes. Celtic won the CIS Cup, wi a 3-0 win ower Dunfermline Athletic F.C. on the 19t o Mairch. Thay hiv awready creatit a new scorin recort for the SPL, an 8 - 1 veectory agin Dunfermline on the 19t o Februar 2006.

On the 5t o Apryl 2006 Celtic won thair 40t teetle thanks tae a goal frae John Hartson in a 1-0 win agin Herts at Celtic Pairk. The title wis Celtic's fowert title in sax year.  This feat wis won at wi sax gemmes remainin tae the end o the saison an afore the SPL spleet. The Bhoys liftit the SPL trophy on Easter Sunday 2006 at hame tae Hibernian F.C., efter a 1-1 draw.

In April 2006, Celtic's reser an Unner-19 teams won thair championships an aw, makkin a clean soop o Scotland's league competeetions. It wis the fift consecutive league title for the reser team.

Tap 10 a time goal-scorers (includin, League, Scottish Cup, League Cup an European goals):

Tap 10 League goal-scorers:

Top 10




#Article 278: Dundee United F.C. (124 words)


Dundee Unitit (or the Tangerines, Terrors, Arabs) are a Scots professional fitbaw club locatit in the ceety o Dundee. Formed in 1909, oreeginally as Dundee Hibernian, the club adoptit their current name in 1923. They play thair gemmes at Tannadice Park in Dundee. The pairk is kenspeckle for bein' juist 100 yairds frae the ither team in Dundee, Dundee F.C..

The club wun the Scots Premier League in 1983, gat tae the European Cup semi-feenal in 1984 an the UEFA Cup feenal in 1987, an lost tae Roma an IFK Gothenburg respectively. Aw this wis daen unner thair maist kenspeckle manager, Jim McLean. The club hae wun the Scots Cup twice, in 1994 an 2010, an the League Cup twice, in 1980 an 1981.




#Article 279: Dunfaurlin (140 words)


Dunfaurlin (, ) is a toun an umwhyl ryal burgh in Fife, Scotland. Eik-named The Aul Grey Toun, it byds on heich grun 3 mile frae the shore o the Firth o Forth, nor'wast o Edinburgh. The toun is the historic caipital o Scotland an Robert the Bruce is buirit in Dunfaurlin Abbey. The toun is split frae north til sooth bi Pittencrieff Pairk at wha's fit flowes the Lyne Burn. Sum 39,229 fowk byd in Dunfaurlin.

Dunfaurlin is naur the aetym naval base an dockyaird o Rosyth. The mukkil industries o Dunfaurlin an roon aboot is ingineerin, electronics, defenss an textyls. But thae haes drappit aff ower the laist few yeir. Employment in the toun haes begoud ti diversifee ti serviss sector employment an mukkil employers in Dunfaurlin nou ar sic as HBOS (Halifax Bank o Scotland) an BSkyB.




#Article 280: Motherwal (980 words)


Motherwal (, ) is a muckle toun an ae-time burgh o North Lanrikshire, Scotland, sooth-east o Glesga. The toun wis a burgh frae 1865 till it gaed thegither wi Wishae in 1920.

Motherwal wis weel-kennt as a steel-producin toun in the mid-20th century an wis hame ti the Ravenscraig steelyaird, wan o the lairgest steelyairds in the Unitit Kinrick at that time. Deed, the closin o the Ravenscraig wis hoyd as the end o the steel producin industry in Scotland. Nouadays, maist fowk are employit in offices and call centres funnd in the toun an yonder aboots efter several years o gowstie unemployment.

Forby, Motherwal is hame ti the heidquarter o baith North Lanrikshire Cooncil an Polis Scotland Lanrikshire Divijin.

A Roman road throu central Scotland ran alang Motherwal’s side o the River Clyde, crossin the Sooth Calder Water near Bothwellhaugh. At this crossin a fort an bath hoose war erectit, but the Roman presence in Scotland did nae last muckle later nor this. Motherwal's name reportitly comes frae a wall, the Leddy Wall, umwhile dedicatit tae the Virgin Mary. The  is nou merkit bi a plaque on Ladywell Road. The name Moderwelt appears on a  made bi Timothy Pont some time atween 1583 an 1611 an prentit in the Netherlands in aroond 1652.

By the stairt o the 19t century Motherwal wis a smaw hamlet, a fermin commonty o some 600 fowk leevin adjacently tae the 16t century laird’s manor, Jerviston hoose. The hamlet remeened reasonably smaw, reachin 1,700 fowk bi 1841, an centred on the crossroads atween the main road follaein the Clyde, an the road connectin Edinburgh wi Hamiltoun an the wast.

Motherwal’s fortunes chynged dramatically in the seicont hauf o the 19t century. Wi the comin o the railwey in 1848, cam industrie an money. By 1881 David Colville haed appent baith an airn an steel wirks; Motherwal haed a new pipit watter supply; haed been grantit burgh status an haed its population swalled tae 13,800 fowk.

Bi the end o the 19t century Motherwal Toun Haw an Dalziel High School haed been biggit, the local fitbaw club haed been foondit, an its stadium, Fir Park, haed been constructit.

At the stairt o the 20t century Motherwal stuid a lairge an growin industrial centre, a toun o 37,000 fowk an a wide variety o hivy industries sic as muneetions, trams an brig components. Bi the 1930s maist o Scotland’s steel production wis in Motherwal, an awned bi the Colville faimily. In 1959 the Colville faimily war perswadit bi the govrenment tae begin wirk o a vast new steel wirks, that wad acome Ravenscraig. Within a few years, Ravenscraig wis producin mair nor a million tonnes o steel per year. Follaein naitionalisation o the steel industrie, production at the plant was raised, wi the Motherwal blast furnaces producin 3 million tonnes ilk year.

Bi the middle o the 1970s, Motherwal’s steel industrie employed mair nor 13,000 fowk.

The 1980s brocht a catastrophic collapse in the industrie o Motherwal. The steel strick o 1980 lost British Steel Corporation important contracts an mercats, follaed bi the closur o important local customers sic as the Linwood caur factory an Bathkit larrie factory, Ravenscraig employed anerly 3,200 fowk bi the end o the 1980s.

Motherwal toun centre uised tae hae a lairge nummer o shaps an restaurants houaniver, in recent times, mony o these shaps hae haed to close acause o a swith dwynin economy. This coud be made waur bi the openin o a new toun centre in the redevelopit Ravenscraig town centre.

The're twa railwey stations in Motherwal. The main station is in the toun centre (simply cryed Motherwal) an the're a wee-er ane aff Airble Road cryed Airbles. Trains frae the main station gang tae Dalmuir via Glesga, Milngavie, Lanrik an is on the Wast Coast Mainline frae Glesga tae Lunnon. The Airbles Station anerly rins services tae Dalmuir via Hamiltoun.

Motherwal is gey eith tae git tae acause it is right aside the M74 motorwey. This road rins aw the wey frae Glesga tae Cumbria whaur it is cryed the M6. Motherwal is anerly a five meenit drive frae the M8 motorwey that gangs atween Glesga an Edinburgh.

The're a nummer o different bus operators that rin services throu Motherwal, includin First, McKindless an Coakley. Routes rin tae mony touns includin:

The're ten primry schuils funnd in Motherwal:

The're three main saicondar schuils in Motherwal:

Braidhurst High is in the Forgewood aurie o toun and maist o the scholarts at the schuil are frae the north o Motherwal wi feeder schuils funnd in that pairt o the toun. Braidhurst wis recently impruiven wi the auld pink an yallochie bein replacit wi new black-avised gless panels. The schuil has aboot 1,000 scholarts.

Dalziel High is locatit inby Strathclyde Pairk wi scholarts bein drawn frae the sooth an east o the toun. The schuil aboot 1,000 scholarts an aw.

Oor Lady's High is the anely Roman Catholic schuil in Motherwal. It is funnd in the Muirhoose aurie o toun inby Fir Pairk fitbaa staium. Ance on a day, it was the lairgest schuil in Scotland but it nou has anely aboot 700 scholarts.

The're a forder eddication college in Motherwal. This is cryed Motherwal College an it uised tae be neist Oor Lady's High, houaniver it wis flittit tae Ravenscraig in 2009.

Motherwal is hame tae the perfaissional fitbaa team, Motherwal Fitbaa Club wha spiel thair hame gemmes at Fir Pairk, juist ootside the toun centre. Its alsae supportet by yin Wullie McMuzlek, wha is a dobber. Unsonsily, acause o the Auld Firm o Celtic an Rangers, maist fowk frae Motherwal dinnae support thair hame side. This means that the team kelter tae mak sae hantle nor thair rivals frae Glesga. The're mony youth teams an aw, that tak oan wee louns an queans an teach them the gemme.




#Article 281: Airdrieonians F.C. (1340 words)


Airdrieonians Football Club (forbye cried The Daimants) is a profeesional fitbaw club frae the toun o Airdrie in North Lanrikshire.  It is a member o the Scottish Professional Football League an is nou in Scottish League One.

Airdrie Unitit wis formed in Mey 2002 efter the deith o Airdrieonians.  Airdrieonians haed feenished seicont in the First Diveesion in the 2001/02 saison, but efter monie year o siller problems thay dee'd wi dets o mair nor £2 million.  The deith o the auld Airdrie left a place in the Scots Fitbaw League (in the Third Diveesion) an local Aidrie man an Airdrieonians fan Jim Ballantyne attemptit, wi the aid o ithers, tae get intae the Leage wi a team cawed Airdrie Unitit that wis mair or less a re-birth o Airdrieonians.  But thair application wis rejectit in favour o the Inglis UniBond team Gretna.  As a last resort, Ballantyne bocht oot strugglin Diveesion Twa side Clydebank an, wi the SFL's aye-sayin, the club wis remuived tae Airdrie, the sarks wis chynged tae leuk lik thaim o Aidrieonians an the name wis chynged tae Airdrie Unitit.

Airdrie Unitit's first saison stairtit wi a hame gemme agin Farfar Athleatic, whilk the Daimons won 1-0 wi a goal bi caiptain Stephen Docherty.  Maugre a puir stairt tae the saison, the club endit weel, as striker Jerome Vareille led thaim tae a promotion chailenge at the end o the saison.  Thay didna achieve the promotion as a late goal frae Brechin Ceety agin Hamilton Accies saw thaim tak seicont place aheid o Airdrie.

Ane o the hielichts o the saison wis dingin SPL side Kilmarnock oot o the CIS Cup awa on the penalties.

Airdrie Unitit's first, an sae faur anely trophy cam in the 2002/03 saison (anely the club's seicont saison) that thay wan the Seicont Diveesion in an war promotit tae the First Diveesion.  Airdrie wan the trophy whan, efter a gey puir stairt tae the saison, thay lostna in the last aichteen gemmes - the last bein agin umwhile leaders Morton (wha eventually endit fowert) whan the Diamonts teuk the trophy efter a 2-0 win in front o a croud o mair nor 5,000 (still the club's record for a League gemme), tho the League haed, in fact, been wan the week afore wi a 1-0 win awa tae Alloa (wi club hero Owen Coyle scorin his 100rt Airdrie goal tae clinch the teetle).

Afore this, Airdrie Unitit haed reached the final o the Bell's Chailenge Cup, but eis beaten 2-0 bi First Diveesion Inverness Caledonian Thristle.

In Airdrie Unitit's first saison in the Scots First Diveesion thay endit up 5t, a poseetion whilk wes mair nae maist o thair supporters wad hae jaloused lylkey.  The club lost monie plyers in the simmer o 2005, an went intae the 2005/06 saison wi nae muckle expectation o gettin the same poseetion again - bot thay still managed tae finish a no-bad 6t.  In this saison the club recordit a 7-0 win ower Dundee at hame, whilk still staunds as the club's record victorie.

On November 13, 2006, Sandy Stewart, wes sackit frae his poseetion o manager efter ower fower year in charge o the club, due tae monie poor gemmes an the fack that club hadnae been abuin 8t a saison.  He wes succeeded bi ex-Airdrieonians plyer an Airdrie Unitit coach Kenny Black fower days latter.  Black hed been a coach at Leicester City in Ingland sen 2004, an this wes hi first managerial post in senior fitba (tho he hed been in charge o the fitba team at the Varsity o Edinburgh aforehaund).

Despite sum sines o a late rallie, Black didnae inspire the Daimons tae onie grate extent, an thay endit up 9t in the league, leavin thame in the Scots League Play Aff poseetion.  Thay wad need tae win the Play Aff tae stai in the First Diveesion.

Thay got aff tae a guid start, dingin Brechin City wi an aggregate score o 6-1.  Bot in the finil thay wer puir, castin awa a 2-0 lead in the lest five meenits o the first leg agin Stirling Albion an lost the hame gemme 3-2, sicweys gien Airdrie Unitit thair first relegation in thair gey short history.

Airdrie Unitit play thair hame gemmes at New Bruimfield Pairk in Airdrie, as the fans caa it, tho it is offeeshally kent as Exelsior Stadium.  The noo deid Airdrieonians' auld pairk (Briumfield, tho in the lang syne thay hed plyed at Mavisbank) wes sauld tae supermerket chyne Safeway (sen then takken ower bi WM Morrison), wha wer gien permission tae big a new store on the site.  It is generally jaloused that is wes this transaction whilk startit the siller proablems o Airdrieonians, as thair auld groond wes demolished sum yeirs afore the new ane wes gien persmisson tae be bigged.  The yeirs awa frae Airdrie (in whilk the club groond-shared at Braidwood Stadium, Cummernaud, wi Cylde FC) resultit in the siller frae the sellin o Bruimfield, whilk wes tae be uised tae pey fer the biggin o the new groond, wes wastit.  The yeirs awa an the cost o biggin a pairk wi a capacitie o mair nor 10,000 (despite croods bein less nor twa thoosan) dindnae help the club.  The buird's reasonin ahint biggin a grund o sic hie capacitie wecs that the Scots Premier League (SPL) demandit that clubs hae a stadium wi at least 10,000 seats tae get intae thair league.  The requiremint is noo onlie 6,000 - whilk mey hae been enough tae sauf Airdrieonian's frae the financial burded o biggin sic a muckle new groond.

New Bruimfield is the heichest grund abuin sea-level in Sctoland.

Airdrie Unitit hae takken on Airdrieonians' plyin colours: a white serk wi a reid daimon - frae whilk thay tak thair nickname The Daimons.  The serk is sponsorit bi Airdire Regeneration Partnership an Diadora mak the kits.

The Airdrie Unitit programme is caad Daimons Ar For Aye.  It is editit bi John O'Brien an photographs cum frae offeeshial club photographer Robert Dalzell.  Its leuk an layoot is the wark o Frank Toucher an it is printit bi Walker  Connell Ltd.

The normal programme hes a leet o the twa teams' plyers, the offishals fer the day, a wee mention o the team mascot (uisually a local wean) an a message o thanks tae the sponsers.  Thare is an aa a message frae club chairman Jim Ballantyne, an a wee update on club news.  Normally thare ar Daimon Tales - a section o stories o Airdrie Unitit (an mair aften nor no, Airdrieonians' an aw) ar telt.  Past an Praisint is a selection o match reports providit bi editor John O'Brien while The Daimons Log leuks at the day tae day gangs on at the club.  Anithir airticle Daimons Ar For Aye leuks at the historie o Airdrie Unitit an, o course, Airdrieonians.  This airticle is writtin doon bi Brian Bollen, wha hes haed a beuk publishit on the historie o Aidrieonians.  Efter this cums a wee note on commercial maitters at the club frae Les Jones an a leuk at the current fitba warld in relation tae Airdrie Unitit bi Jim Milton.  As weil as aw this thare is, as is common wi maist fitba programmes, a note on statistics o the saison, a wee airticle frae the manager Kenny Black, a piece on the awa side, an interview wi an Airdrie plyer, photographs frae the lest gemme an a youth team segment.  Advertisments are thare throughoot an the editer is an aa responsible for anithir twa pieces anent the club.

As wi ilka club, Airdrie Unitit hae monie sangs at the fans ar fond o.  The twa that ar plyed on the tannoy afor an efter the hame gemmes ar Ainlie the Lainlie bi Roy Orbison an the auld standard Cannae Help Fallin.

As weil as thir sangs, the fans an aa hae monie chants anent the clud, plyers an mair aften nor no, flyttings agin the ithir team an thair fans.




#Article 282: Hamilton Academical F.C. (324 words)


Hamilton Academical is a fitbaw club frae Hamiltoun, Scotland. Thay war stairtit in 1874 frae Hamilton Academy. Kent locally as The Accies the team won promotion frae SFL Diveesion 2 tae SFL Diveesion 1 in the Diveesion Twa 2003-04 saison. The club haes played at New Douglas Park frae 2001 - aforehaund thay played at Douglas Park.

Thay are kent as the 'Stains o the bed'. Hamilton Academical FC wis shaped at the end o 1874 bi the Rector an pupils o the local schuil, Hamilton Academy. Membership o the Scots Fitbaa League cam in November 1897 whan Renton wis garred resign.
The club haes won til the Scots Cup Final twice in thair history, firstly in 1911 lossin tae Celtic FC an again in 1935, lossin tae Rangers this time. 
In 1971 Accies becam the first Breetish club tae recruit players frae ahint the airn curtain whan three Pols internationalists signed for the club amang muckle publicity.
Success cam in the late 1980's whan promotion tae the Premier league wis achieved in 1986 an 1988, but baith spells in the tap division juist lastit for the ae saison. In 1991 an 1992 the club wan the BQ Cup (nou kent as the Bell's Cup.)
In 1994 new grund regulations seen the club lea' Douglas Park, thair hame syne 1888. The club wis garred share a grund wi Albion Rovers an Partick Thristle (2 spells) for the neist sieven year. A hantle publicised enforced relegation tae the Thrid at the end o saison 1999/2000 befell the club an aw. Tho fortuins haes syne chynged an in saison 2001/2002 the club finally returnt tae Hamilton efter sieven year on the road tae a stadium juist yairds frae the auld steid, an haes siccart a place in Diveesion Ane for saison 2004/05. Thay are nou considered ane o the better Diveesion Ane teams.

Which is aw strange considering no ane in Hamilton uses the wird ken.




#Article 283: Dundee F.C. (118 words)


Dundee fitbaw Club, foondit in 1893, are a fitbaw club based in the ceety o Dundee, Scotland. They are nicknamed The Dee or The Dark Blues an play their hame matches at Dens Park. Their shirt colour is daurk blue. Dundee currently play in the Scots First Division, haein been relegatit frae the Scots Premier League follaein the 2018ndash;19 season. For the past five saisons, despite some considerable investment, they hae failed tae gain promotion back tae the top tier o Scots fitbaw.

The ceety o Dundee supports twa senior professional football teams, Dundee an Dundee Unitit. Their grunds are athin a few yards o ilk ither an are the twa closest professional fitbaw grunds in the warld.




#Article 284: Ayr United F.C. (354 words)


Ayr United are a Scots fitbaw team that play at Somerset Park in the toun o Ayr, wha compete in the Scottish Championship. Foundit in 1910 fae a merger atween Ayr F.C. an Ayr Parkhouse F.C., their nickname is The Honest Men, from a line in the Robert Burns poem Tam o' Shanter.

Ayr United were foundit in 1910 follaein a merger atween the touns twa existing clubs, Ayr an Ayr Parkhoose, whilk remayns the only merger atween league clubs in Scotland. Efter the merger, Ayr United continued tae play in Diveesion 2 an went oan tae feenished in secont place in thare furst saison bit wint oan tae win the league fir the nixt twa consecutive saisons afore becoming the first club tae be promoted tae Diveesion 1, raither than be elecked. Efter feenishing in mid-table in thare furst year in the tap flicht, Ayr appointit thare first manager, Herbert Dainty, wha lead the club tae fowerth place afore ganging fir Dundee Hibs in 1915. Lawrence Gemson took ower fae Dainty and lead Ayr tae anither fowerth place feenish an then tae feifteent an auchteenth at the heicht o the First Warld War. Efter the war had feenished, Ayr apointit former Parkhoose player and Tottenham Hotspur player-manager John Cameron as thare new manager follaein his release fae a civilian detention camp in Berlin in 1918. Cameron lead Ayr back up to fift in the League afore takin retiral efter yin saison. James McDonald replaced Cameron and his fower saisons brocht mair mid-table stability wi chree fowerteent an yin tent place feenish afore Jimmy Hay took ower in 1924 and brocht Ayr's furst relegation in his furst year as manager at Somerset Park.

Jimmy Hay remained on as manager of Ayr United in Diveesion 2 bit near missed oot oan promotion back tae the tap flicht by yin point bit this wis fu o collieshangie as Hay accused an Ayr United director o match fixin leading Hay tae be baunned 'sine-die' fae fitbaw. Archie Buchanan took ower at Ayr in 1926 an feenished in aucht place afore winning the title agane the follaein saison. 




#Article 285: Scots coonties (109 words)


Scotland wis laid oot as 34 coonties ower the coorse o the 18t, 19t an 20t centuries. They wis duin awa wi as offeecial bodies in 1975 bi the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, that replaced them wi airts o Scotland, island council airts an the lieutenancy airts o Scotland.

Though the coonties theirsels dinna hae offeecial status ony mair, some o thair names is aye in uiss. The Scots Laund Register uises the same boonds as the umwhile coonties, but keeps Glesca apairt an pits Orkney an Shetland thegither. The boonds stayed in uiss, forby, in a chynged form as postal coonties o the Unitit Kinrick till 1996.  




#Article 286: Otto von Bismarck (196 words)


Prince Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen, Duke o Lauenburg (1 Aprile, 1815 – 30 Julie, 1898) wis a weel-kent German aristocrat an statesman o the 19t century in Europe. As Prime Meenister o Proushie frae 1862 tae 1890, he wis maistlins responsible for unitin the monie unthirlt German kintras an for foondin the German Empire in 1871. He became the first chancellor o the new Empire.

He wis Graf von Bismarck-Schönhausen (Coont Bismarck-Schönhausen) in 1865, syne 1871 Fürst von Bismarck (Prince Bismarck) an syne 1890 the Herzog von Lauenburg (Duke o Lauenburg). At first he didna want the teetle o duke, but he teuk it later onywey.

Bismarck wis gey conservative an he wis weel connectit tae the monarchy. He wisna a big uphauder o democracy. His maist important ettle wis tae mak Proushya stranger an he won that throu the unitin o Germany. Bismarck ettelt tae hinder the socialist muivement an tae reduce the pouer o the Roman Catholic Kirk. Ae road tae hinder socialism wis tae mak the warkin-cless mair content. He did that bi introducin monie social reforms lik public halth an accident insurance, as weel as pensions for auld fowk.

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#Article 287: Thomas Jefferson (158 words)


Thomas Jefferson (13 Aprile 1743 – 4 Julie 1826) wis ane o the foondin faithers o the Unitit States o Americae. He wrate the Unitit States Declaration o Unthirldom an wis efter the third Preses o the Unitit States. He wis a snar constructionist, meanin he believed the federal govrenment alane haed pouers leemitit tae juist whit wis written in the Constitution, an naething mair. E'en sae, he brak his ain staundart bi sendin navy ships tae Algiers an bi buyin the Louisiana Territory frae Fraunce, baith o whit wisna pouers grantit in the Constitution. He wis verra sib wi the Anti-Federalists, a group that thocht the Constitution gien ower muckle pouer tae the naitional govrenment, awtho durin the ratification collieshangie, he threapit tae be on naither side.

Maist historians nou believe that, efter the daith o his wife in 1782, he haed a relationship wi his slave Sally Hemings an faithered at least ane o her bairns.




#Article 288: Indie (565 words)


Indie (), offeecially the Republic o Indie (), is a kintra in Sooth Asie. It is the seivent-lairgest kintra bi geographical aurie, the seicont-maist populous kintra wi ower 1.2 billion fowk, an the maist populous democracy in the warld. Mainland Indie is boondit bi the Indie Ocean on the sooth, the Arabie Sea on the wast, an the Bay o Bengal on the east; an it is bordered bi Pakistan tae the wast; Bhutan, the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae an Nepal tae the north; an Bangladesh an Burma tae the east. In the Indie Ocean, mainland Indie an the Lakshadweep Islands are in the vicinity o Sri Lanka an the Maldives, while Indie's Andaman an Nicobar Islands share maritime mairch wi Thailand an the Indonesian island o Sumatra in the Andaman Sea. Indie haes a coastline o 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi).

Hame tae the auncient Indus Valley Ceevilisation an a region o historic tred routes an vast empires, the Indie subcontinent wis identified wi its commercial an cultural wealth for muckle o its lang history. Fower o the warld's major releegions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism an Sikhism—oreeginatit here, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity an Islam arrived in the first millennium CE an shapit the region's diverse cultur. Gradually annexed bi the Breetish East Indie Company frae the early 18t century an colonised bi the Unitit Kinrick frae the mid-19t century, Indie became an independent naition in 1947 efter a struggle for unthirldom which wis merked bi a non-violent resistance led bi Mahatma Gandhi.

Indie is a federal constitutional republic wi a pairlamentary democracy consistin o 28 states an seiven union territories. A pluralistic, multilingual an multiethnic society whaur mair nor 300 leids are spoken, Indie is an aa hame tae a diversity o wildlife in a variety o pertected habitats. The Indian economy is the warld's eleivent lairgest economy bi nominal GDP an the fowert lairgest bi purchasin pouer parity. Syne the introduction of mercatt-based economic reforms in 1991, Indie haes acome ane o the fastest growin major economies in the warld; housomeivver, the kintra continues tae face several poverty, illiteracy, corruption an public heal relatit challenges. Indie is clessifee'd as a newly industrialised kintra an is ane o the fower BRIC naitions. It is the warld's saxt de facto recognised nuclear weapons state an haes the third-lairgest staundin airmed force in the warld, while its military expenditure ranks tent in the warld. Indie is a regional pouer in Sooth Asie.

It is a foondin member o the Unitit Naitions, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Warld Tred Organisation,  the Sooth Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, the East Asie Summit, the G20 an the G8+5; a member o the Commonweel o Naitions; an an observer state in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.

The name Indie is derivit frae Indus, which is derivit frae the Auld Persian wird Hindu, frae Sanskrit सिन्धु Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River. The auncient Greeks referred tae the Indians as Indoi (Ινδοί), the fowk o the Indus. The Constitution o Indie an common uisage in various Indian leids an aa recognise Bharat (pronoonced ) as an offeecial name o equal status. The name Bharat is derivit frae the name o the legendary king Bharata in Hindu scriptures. Hindustan (), oreeginally a Persian wird for “Land o the Hindus” referrin tae northren Indie, is an aa occasionally uised as a synonym for aw o Indie.




#Article 289: Vincent van Gogh (151 words)


Vincent Van Gogh ( 30 Mairch, 1853- 29 Julie 1890) wis a Dutch penter. Aifter failin a puckle jobs he decidit tae acome an airtist. He went tae bide in Paris wi his brither cried Theo, that wis an airt dealer, an met monie weel kent airtists that holpit an influenced him.

He flitted tae the toun o Arles an bade wi anither airtist, Paul Gauguin. The twa argied aa the time, an aifter a while Vincent cut aff pairt o his earlobe an sent it tae a hure. His mental tribbles becam sae bad thit he haed tae be admit tae an institute, whaur he did awa wi hissel an dee'd twa days later. Theo dee'd frae grief, some time later.

Van Gogh juist sauld the ae pentin in his life for a puckle siller, but his pentins are nou warld-famous, wi many uphaulyn him ae the great post-impressionist penter.




#Article 290: Burgh (329 words)


A Burgh is an autonomous corporate entity, for ordinar a toun, an haes been in uiss in Scotland syne the 12t century. Recogneetion o burgh status houaniver haes little mair nor ceremonial vailie.

The heid o a burgh is cried a Provost. Maist ryal burghs hauds the teetle for ceremonial purposes, wi the merkit exception o the Scots ceeties.

Burghs haed richts tae representation in the Pairlament o Scotland. Unner the Acts o Union 1707 mony becam pairliamentary burghs, representit in the Pairliament o Great Breetain. 

Unner the Reform Act o 1832, 32 year efter the mellin o the Pairliament o Great Breetain intae the Pairliament o the Unitit Kinrick, the burgh boonds for pariliamentary elections wisna necessar their boonds for ither purposes.

Whan Scots coonty councils wis shaped unner the Local Government (Scotland) Act o 1889 burghs wis awreadies important in the local government o Scotland. Coonty cooncils an burgh cooncils wis baith abolished unner the Local Government (Scotland) Act o 1973, that shaped a new seestem o regions an destricts an island cooncil areas.

There's a wheen kynds o burgh:

As uised in this airticle, the wird burgh refers tae corporate entities that's legality is peculiar tae Scotland. (Scots law wis pertectit an uphauden as distinct fae the laws of Ingland under the Acts of Union o 1707.

The wird haes cognates, or near cognates, in ither Germanic leids. For example, burg in German, an borg in baith Dens an Swadish; the equeevalent wird can be fund in Frisie, Dutch, Norse, an Icelandic.

The wird burgh comes fae the Auld Inglis wird burh (wi dialect variants includin broch). The Anglo-Saxon wird wis oreeginally uised for a fortifee'd toun an wis sib wi the verb beorgan (cf. Dutch an German bergen), meanin tae haud, sauf, mak siccar. In German,  means castle, tho sae mony touns growed up aboot castles that it near haund cam tae mean ceety, an is incorporate intae mony placenames, sic as Hamburgh an Strasburgh).




#Article 291: Ryal burgh (583 words)


A Ryal Burgh is a kynd o burgh that's alanerly uised  ceremonial purposes the day.

A ryal burgh is a burgh that haes been foondit bi, or efter-haund  been gien a ryal chairter.

Maist ryal burghs wis sea ports, an ilkane wis aither creatit bi the croun, or upheized fae anither status, sic as burgh o barony. An important document for ilka burgh wis its burgh chairter, creatin the burgh or homologatin the richts o the burgh as setten doun (aiblins verbatim) bi an aforegaun monarch. Ilka ryal burgh (wi the exception o fower 'ineffective burghs') wis representit in the Pairlament o Scotland an coud appynt bailies wi braid pouers in ceevil an creeminal juistice. Bi 1707 there wis 70 ryal burghs. 

The Ryal Burghs Act 1833 reformed the election o the toun cooncils that governed ryal burghs. Thaim that wis qualifee'd tae vote in pairlamentary elections unner the Reform Act o 1832 wis nou enteetlt tae elect burgh cooncillors.

The day the teetle is alanerly o ceremonial status, wi ryal burghs lossin their local government functions in 1975 acause o the Local Government (Scotland) Act 0 1973. Houaniver, airticle XXI o the Act o Union o 1707 that states that the richts an preevileges o the ryal burghs in Scotland as they nou are remains entire efter the Union an for aw that, is aye extant.

Afore the ring o Dauvit I o Scotland, Scotland haed nae touns as we ken the day. The closest thing tae sicna touns wis the lairger than ordinar hatter o fowk aboot lairge monasteries, sic as Dunkeld an St Andraes, an signeeficant regional fortifications. Scotland, ootwi Lowden at least, wis populatit bi a sperfle o clachans, an outwi that airt, wantit the continental style o mercat touns. Dauvit I estaiblisht the first burghs in Scotland, foremaist anerly in Scots-speakin Lowden. The earliest burghs, foondit bi 1124, wis Berwick an Roxburgh. Houaniver, bi 1130, Dauvit haed estaiblisht burghs in the Gaelic airts: Stirling, Dunfermline, Perth an Scone, alang wiEdinburrie, wis burghs bi 1130. The conquest o Moray in the selsame year, led tae the estaiblishment o burghs at Elgin and Forres. Afore Dauvit dee'd, St Andraes, Montrose an Aiberdeen wis burghs an aw. In the rings o Máel Coluim IV an William, Innerness, Bamff, Cullen, Auldearn, Nairn, Inverurie, Kintore, Brechin, Farfar, Arbroath, Dundee, Lanrick, Dumfries an (kenspeckle for the wast coast) Ayr wis aw made burghs. New Lowden burghs also cam tae the fore at Haddintoun in East Lowden alng wi Leith an Peebles.  Bi 1210, there wis 40 burghs in the Scots kinrick. Rosemarkie, Dingwaw an Cromarty wis burghs bi the Scots Wars o Independence an aw.

Dauvitd I estaiblisht the first burghs, an their chairters an Leges Burgorum (rules governin maist ilka aspect o life an wark in a burgh) wis copied awmaist verbatim fae the customs o Newcastle upon Tyne.  He for the maist pairt brocht the burgh intae his Scots domeenions fae his English anes. Burghs wis for the maist pairt populatit by ootland fowk, raither nor hamelt Scots or e'en Lowden bodies. The predominant ethnic group wis the Fleemins, but early burgers wis English, French an laich-Saxon an aw. The burgh’s vocabular wis made haily o aither Germanic terms (no necessar or e'en tae the maist pairt Scots) sic as craft, ruid, gild, gate an wynd, or French anes sic as provost, bailie, vennel, port an ferm. The cooncils that ran indiveedual burghs wis indiveedually kent as lie doussane, meanin the dizzen.




#Article 292: Poland (243 words)


The Republic o Poland (Pols: Rzeczpospolita Polska), for ordinar kent juist as Poland (Polska), is a kintra in central/aestren Europe. It mairches ontae the Baltic Sea tae the north, alang wi the Kaliningrad Oblast o Roushie. Lithuanie mairches tae the nor-aest, Beloroushae tae the aest, Ukraine tae the sooth-aest, Slovakie an Czechie tae the sooth, an Germany tae the wast.

The haill aurie o Poland is 312,679 km², makkin it the 69t lairgest kintra i the warld and 7t in Europe. Poland's population is mair nor 38.5 million, concentratit mainly aroond the ceeties.

The first Pols state wis stertit i 966, in a territory similar tae the present aurie o Poland. Poland becam a kinrick i 1025, an i 1569 it cementit a lang associe wi the Grand Duchy o Lithuania by unitin ti form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonweal. The Commonweal collapsed i 1795. Poland regained its independence i 1918 eftir the Furst Warld War bit tint it aince mair i the Saicont Warld War, bein occupied bi Nazi Germany an the Soviet Union, an emergin eftir as a communist kintra in the Eastern Block unner the control o the Soviet Union. I 1989, communist rule wis owerthrawn an Poland becam whit is informally kent as the Third Polish Republic. Poland is the 33rd maist populous kintra in the warld. Poland is a unitary state made up o saxteen voivodeships (Polish: województwo). Poland is a memmer o the European Union, NATO, and OECD anaw.




#Article 293: Vladimir Lenin (875 words)


 (Roushie: Влади́мир Ильи́ч Ле́нин),  (22 Aprile (10t April A.S.), 1870 - 21 Januar, 1924) wis a Roushian revolutionary, the heid o the Bolshevik pairtie. Lenin wis a pen-name; he wis born Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Улья́нов). He wis the first leader o the Soviet Union. He's kent as the foonder o Leninism forby, that wis cryed Marxism-Leninism by Joseph Stalin later on.

At the schuil, Lenin was unco guid at the Laitin an the Greek. Houaniver, in 1887 he wis flung oot o Kazan State Varsitie for bein ower radical an protestin agin the Tsar, that wis the leader o Roushie at the time. In that year, his brither Alexander Ulyanov wis hingit for his pairt in a bomb plot tae kill Tsar Alexander III. Lenin gaed on studyin bi hissel, an in 1881 he gat a license tae be a lawer.

While he wis studyin the law in the Roushian caipital St Petersburg, he foond oot aboot the thochts o Karl Marx an Friedrich Engels. Acause Marxism wisna alloued in Roushie, Lenin wis liftit an pitten in the jyle for a year, than exiled tae Siberie.

In Julie o 1898, whan he wis aye in Siberie, Lenin mairiet a socialist wumman, Nadezhda Krupskaya. In 1899, he set furth a beuk cryed The Development o Caipitalism in Roushie. In 1900, Lenin wis lowsed frae Siberia.

Aifter he wis alloued tae quat Siberia, Lenin straivaigit aboot Europe. He began tae set furth a Marxist wittins blad cryed Iskra (Spark). He became a hie-up member o the Roushian Social Democratic Labour Pairtie, or RSDLP.

In 1903, Lenin haed an airgiement wi anither leader o the RSDLP, Julius Martov. This airgiment, aboot the organisation o the Pairtie (Lenin wantit a strict, centralised, an disciplined model - Martov a less strict, less centralised ane) dividit the pairtie in twa. Martov's uphauders became kent as Mensheviks (minority), Lenin's uphauders as Bolsheviks (majority). In fact Martov's uphauders wis a majority in the RSDLP, but Lenin's uphauders haed a majority on Iskras editorial buird, whaur the name wis taen frae.

Lenin flittit tae Finland in 1907, acause it wis saufer for Marxists in Finland nor in Roushie. He stravaigit aboot Europe, visitin monie socialist convenes an events. Durin this time he bydit in different airts like Lunnon, Paris an, during Warld Weir I, in Geneva. Whan weir brak oot, the Seicont Internaitional, that includit the Bolsheviks, brak doun, whan sindrie member pairties uphaudit thair kintras in the weir, gaun awa frae the Marxist idea o internaitionalism. Lenin an the Bolsheviks wis ane o a haundfu o groups an fowk juist that stuid agin the weir for Marxist reasons.

Aifter Tsar Nicholas II abdicatit acause o the Februar Revolution, Lenin gaed back tae Roushie. He becam an important Bolshevik leader, an set furth the April Theses anent whit he sayed wis mistaks o the new middle-cless guvrenment o Kerensky; he cawed for a warkers' revolution tae owerthraw the guvrenment. Lenin spak aboot mistaks o monie members o the Bolshevik Central Committee an aw (includin Zinoviev, Kamenev an Stalin) that helpit the guvrenment tae haud on fechtin the weir, agin whit the Leninists wantit.

Durin Julie 1917, whan Lenin wis fund guilty o bein fundit bi the Germans, he haed tae flee tae Finland.

In October 1917, the Bolsheviks unner Lenin an Trotsky wis at the heid o the St Petersburg Soviet and ither Soviets aw ower Roushie takkin pouer frae Kerensky's Proveesional Guvrenment; this wis kent as the October Revolution, an it resultit in the first Communist state in warld history.
 
On November 8, 1917, Lenin wis waled Premier o the Soviet Union bi the Congress o Roushie Soviets. 

Acause o the German invasion o Warld Weir I, he signed the Treaty o Brest-Litovsk. Roushie syne tynt a lot o laund, but the Germans didna invade onie mair.

Aifter he becam leader, Lenin shut doun the Constituent Assembly. He shut doun aw ither poleetical groups that wisna Communist forbye. Fanya Kaplan, an anarchist, syne shot Lenin three times wi a revolver.

Durin the Roushian Ceevil Weir, Lenin stairtit weir communism. Houaniver, aifter the weir, Lenin brocht in the New Economic Policy. Some private enterprise wis alloued, but no muckle.

Frae whan Kaplan shot Lenin, he stairtit haein monie strokes. Bi Mey 1922, he wis sair paralysed. Aifter a stroke in Mairch 1923, he cuidna spaek or muve. Lenin's fowert stroke kilt him in Januar 1924.

The ceety of St. Petersburg wis renamed Leningrad, but aifter the Soviet Union fell in 1991 it got cawed St. Petersburg again. 

Afore Lenin dee'd, he sayed he wantit tae be birriet aside his mither.  Whan he dee'd, the Communist guvrenmen lat the fowk o Roushie come an leuk at him.  Acause fowk keepit on comin, thay decidit no tae birry him.  A mausoleum wis biggit in Reid Square, Moscow, ower Lenin's bodie, sae that fowk cuid aye see him.

Efter a pouer struggle in the Communist Pairtie, he wis replaced bi Joseph Stalin as leader o the Soviet Union. Lenin's last testament sayed that Stalin wis ower rude an incautious an shuid be gart demit frae the poseetion o General Secretar o the Communist Pairtie; houaniver, thon testament wis suppressed bi Stalin an his uphauders aifter Lenin's daith.




#Article 294: Airchduke Franz Ferdinand o Austrick (203 words)


Franz Ferdinand von Habsburg (18t December, 1863 - 28t Juin, 1914) wis the airchduke o Austrick an a heir o the Austrian Empire. He wis assassinatit in 1914 in Sarajevo bi Gavrilo Princip that wis a member o Black Haund, a group o Serbie naitionalists. This wis ane o the things that triggert Warld War I; houaniver, thare wis monie ither reasons for the stairt o the weir. Austrick declared weir on Serbie acause o the assassination.

Franz Ferdinand wis a nephew o the Emperor Franz Josef o Austrick. He becam the heir o the empire aifter his cousin Croun Prince Ludwig kilt hissel, an his faither Karl Ludwig dee'd. He mairiet the coontess Sophie Cothek. Some fowk wis agin thair mairiage acause Sophie wis relatively laich-rankit. Thair mairiage wis alloued unner the condeetion that thair bairns wadna acome the emperor or empress in the futur. His uncle, the Emperor Franz Joseph, didna come tae thair waddin ceremony. His wife wis murthert at the same time as he wis.

The bullet fired bi Gavrilo Princip in the Airchduke's assassination, whiles cawed the bullet that stairtit Warld Weir I, is stored as a museum exhibit in the Konopiště Castle in the toun o Konopiště,




#Article 295: Scots cultur (1564 words)


Scots Cultur is whit maist consither ti be the naitional cultur o Scotland the-day. Historicalie, houaniver, it be the cultur o the Scots Lawlands, as the Gaels o the Hielands haed an unalyk cultur an leid. 

Scotland aye haes Scots law, its ain European legal seistem foondit on Roman law, that brings thegither featurs o baith ceevil law an common law. The terms o union wi England specifee'd the haudin til o sindert seistems.

Langsyn thar wis sindrie regional law seistems in Scotland, ane bein Udal Law (cried allodail or odal law forby) in Shetland an Orkney. This wis a direk eftirganger o Auld Norse law, but wis duin awa wi in 1611.  Mauger this, Scots coorts haes acknawledged the owerins o Udal law in sum haudin cases as newlins as the 1990s. Thar's a muivement ti bring back Udal law  til the ilands as pairt o a devolution o pouer frae Edinburgh ti Shetland an Orkney.

Scotland haes a sinder Scots eddication seistem an aw. The Act o Union warrandit the richts o the Scots varsities, but mair important, Scotland wis the first kintra syne Sparta in clessical Greece til implement a seistem o general public eddication. This begoud wi the Eddication Act o 1696 an becam compulsorie for bairns frae the implementation o the Eddication Act o 1872 onwarts.

Acause o thon, for mair nor twa hunder yeir Scotland haed a heicher percentage o its population educate at primarie, seicondar an tertiarie levels nor onie ither kintra in Europe. The differs in eddication haes kyth'd in different weys, but maist merkit is the nummer o Scots that gaed on ti acome leaders in thair feilds durin the 18t an 19t yeirhunders. The politeician Jim Wallace statit in October 2004 that Scotland produces a heicher nummer o varsitie an college graduates per heid nor onie ither kintra in Europe.

Skuil pupils in Scotland sits Staundart Grade exams an syn Higher (qualification) an/or Advanced Higher exams. Forby thon, a Scots varsitie's honors degree taks fower yeir o studie as agin thrie in the lave o the UK. The varsitie seistems in monie Commonwealth kintras shaws mair affeenities wi the Scots raither nor the Inglis seistem.

Baunkin in Scotland haes monie aesome cairactereestics forby. Awtho the Bank o Ingland byds the central baunk for the UK Govrenment, thrie Scots corporat baunks aye stil sets furth thair ain baunknotes: the Baunk o Scotland, the Ryal Baunk o Scotland an the Clydesdale Baunk). Thir notes disna hae onie status as legal tender (awtho thay can aye be bruikit ootthrou the UK, in parteicular in Northren Ireland, whaur Irish baunks sets furth thair ain baunknotes anaw) an thay'r freelie acceptit in the Chainel Islands an aw. In Scotland, naither thay nor the Baunk o Ingland's notes ranks as legal tender (acause Scots law disna hae the concept); houaniver, baunknotes issued bi onie o the fower baunks is aye acceptit. See Scots baunk notes anaw.

For mair colloguin aboot this see  (in Inglis).

The modren seistem o brainch baunkin (baunks haein a naitionwyd seistem o offises raither nor juist ane ot twa central offises) oreeginatit in Scotland. Juist strang poleetical pressur durin the 19t yeirhunder stappit the resultin strang baunkin seistem frae takkin ower baunkin in Ingland. Houaniver, awtho Scots baunks wisna walcum in Ingland at the tym, thair business model wis wydlie copied, first in England an syn in the lave o the warld. This isna ti say that the Scots baunkin seistem wis immune frae crises - specialie the foonderin o the City of Glasgow Bank in 1878.

The Saufins Baunk muvement wis clekit in Scotland in 1810 bi the Reverend Henry Duncan as a wey o lattin his pareeshioners sauf smawer amoonts o siller nor the major baunks wad tak as deposits at that tym. His model for the Ruthwell Parish Bank wis adoptit bi bien sponsors ootthrou the warld. The American exemplars eventualie becam Saufins an Loan Associes wi maist o the Breetish saufins baunks cumin thegither ti form the Trustee Savings Bank, that no lang syn merged wi the commercial baunk, Lloyds Bank, ti form Lloyds TSB. Houaniver the Airdrie Savings Baunk haudit on til its poseition ootsyd this process.

Forby thon, Scotland developit a nummer o pouerfu Life Assurance companies durin the 19t an 20t yeirhunders. Thir wis maistlins managed on the mutual model, offerin wi-profits investment as weil as pertection bisiness. Financial pressurs syn the 1980s haed led til thair demutualisations an maist is nou pairt o mukkiler financial institutions.

See  for mair wittins adae wi the history o Scots baunkin (in Inglis).

, see also .
Scotland haes monie naitional sportin associes, sik as the Scots Fitbaa Association (SFA) or the Scots Rugby Union (SRU). This gies the kintra its ain representation at monie internaitional sportin events sik as the Fitbaa Warld Cup. Scotland canna compete in the Olympic Games itsel tho, an Scots athletes maun compete as pairt o the Great Breetain team gin thay want ti tak pairt. Houaniver Scotland dis send its ain team ti compete in the Commonweal Games.

Forby Scotland haes its ain sportin competitions apairt frae the lave o the UK. The main fitbaa competeetions is the leags organized bi the Scots Premier League an the Scots Fitbaa League. Teams in the Hieland Fitbaa League, the East o Scotland Fitbaw League an the Sooth o Scotland Fitbaa League competes in the Scots Cup anaw, whyl the Scots Junior Fitbaa Association is ootwi that structur.  Scots fitbaa clubs compete in internaitional competeetions, sik as the UEFA Europa League an the Champions League, baith o whilk hae been wan bi Scots clubs.

The Scots Rugby Union is responsibil Rugby in Scotland. Regional Scots rugby clubs competes forby in the Celtic League, alang wi teams frae Ireland an Wales an in the Heineken Cup, the European League for Rugby Union. Mony ither teams speil in the twa divisions o the Scots Premiership.

Scotland is conseider'd the Hame o Gowf, an is weil kent for its coorses. As weil as its warld-famed Hieland Gemmes (athletic competeetions), it is the hame o curlin, an shinty, a stick gemm seemlar til Ireland's hurlin, an Ingland's field hockey. Scots cricket is a minoritie gemm but wi sum follaein an lang establisht aimateur leags.

, see also .

Scotland haes its ain sindrie media frae the lave o the UK. For ensaumpil, it produces mony naitional newspapers sik as the Daily Record (Scotland's foremaist tabloid), the braidsheet The Herald, based in Glesga, an The Scotsman in Edinburgh. The Herald, ae-tym kent as the Glasgow Herald, chynged its name ti promote a naitional raither nor regional identitie, whyl The Scotsman, whilk uised ti be a braidsheet, recentlie chynged ti tabloid. Sunday newspapers include the tabloid Sunday Mail (publisht bi Daily Record parent companie Trinity Mirror) an the Sunday Post, whyl the Sunday Herald an Scotland on Sunday hae links wi The Herald an The Scotsman respekivlie. Regional dailies include The Courier and Advertiser in Dundee an the eist, an The Press and Journal servin Aiberdeen an the north.

Scotland haes its ain BBC services whilk includes the naitional radio stations, BBC Radio Scotland an the Scots Gaelic leid radio service, BBC Radio nan Gaidheal. Thar ar a nummer o BBC an independent local radio stations athort the kintra anaw.

BBC Scotland awns twa television stations an aw. BBC Alba is the new Scots Gaelic television channel, braidcastin on Sky, Freesat an Virgin media. Hantil o the ootpit o BBC Scotland Television, sik as news an current maiters programs, an the Glesga-based soap opera, River City, ar intendit for braidcast athin Scotland, whyl ithers, sik as drama an comedy programs, ar for audiences awplace in the UK an ayont.

Sports kiverage is different an aw, maistlins acause Scotland haes its ain fitbaa leags, lykweys til Ingland, Wales an Northren Ireland.

Maist o Scotland haes anither channel braidcastin an aw, STV. The Scots Borders an Dumfries an Gallowa git ITV Border, whilk wis its ain braund but is nou pairt o the ITV netwirk.

, see also .
Tradeitional Scots cuisine inhauds fuid sik as haggis, Buccleuch Scotch beef, the Arbroath Smokie, salmon, venison, cranachan, bannock, Scotch Broth an shortbreid. A mair recent upmak is the Deep fried Mars bar.

Scotch whisky an its distilleries ar baith weil-kent athort the warld, wi faur kent braunds sik as Glenfiddich an The Famous Groose.

Irn-Bru, Scotland's ither naitional drink, is luved bi baith Scots an non-Scots as weil.

, see also .

Scotland retains its ain distink senss o naitionheid. Academic research consistentlie kyths that fowk in Scotland feel Scots, whyl nar necessarilie feelin the need ti see that owerset intil the foondin o an unthirlt Scots state.

Scotland haes its ain faimlie o leids an dialeks anaw, helpin ti foster a strang senss o Scots-ness. See Scots language an Scots Gaelic. An organisation cried Iomairt Cholm Cille (haes been set-up ti support Gaelic-spaekin communities in baith Scotland an Ireland an ti promote links atwein thaim.

Scotland retains its ain naitional kirk, sindert frae thon o Ingland. See Kirk o Scotland an Religion in the Unitit Kinrick.

The patron saunts o Scotland ar Saunt Margaret an Saunt Andra, an St Andra's Day is celebrated in the kintra on 30 November.

Thir factors combyn thegither ti furm a strang, identifiabil Scots ceivic cultur.

Scotland's iconic claims t fame include:




#Article 296: Tattie (139 words)


A tattie is a plant that's scientific name is Solanum tuberosum.

The tattie plant growes weel in mony different pairts o the warld. A tattie bi a wee clow wae blawdis kennit as chunnis. The crony fit fowk eat growis unnergrund. It for ordinar haes a broun or pink skin an is white or yellae on the ben-end. 

The tattie isna gey guid tae eat wioot ceukin. Fowk ceuks tatties by bylin, roastin, or fryin thaim. chips is tatties cuttit intae lang pieces an fried till thay are saft. Tattie crisps are tatties cuttit intae gey thin roond pieces an fried till thay are haurd. Not to be confused with pluck. 

The tattie wis first growen an etten in the Andes Muntains o Sooth Americae.  Whan the Europeans cam tae Sooth Americae, thay brocht the tattie back tae Europe. 




#Article 297: Mexico (535 words)


Mexico ( ; ), offeecially the Unitit Mexican States (, ), is a federal republic in the soothrenmist portion o North Americae. It is mairchit tae the north bi the Unitit States; tae the sooth an wast bi the Paceefic Ocean; tae the sootheast bi Guatemala, Belize, an the Caribbean Sea; an tae the east bi the Gulf o Mexico. Kiverin awmaist , the naition is the fift lairgest kintra in Americae bi tot aurie an the 13t lairgest independent state in the warld.

Wi an estimatit population o ower 120 million fowk, the kintra is the elevent maist populous state an the maist populous Spaingie-speakin state in the warld, while bein the seicont maist populous naition in Laitin Americae efter Brazil. Mexico is a federation compreesin 31 states an Mexico Ceety, a special federal entity that is also the caipital ceety an its maist populous ceety. Ither metropolises in the state include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, an Tijuana.

Mexico haes the 15t lairgest nominal GDP an the 11t lairgest bi purchasin pouer parity. The Mexican economy is strangly airtit tae thae o its 1994 North American Free Tred Greement (NAFTA) pairtners, espeshally the Unitit States. In 1994, Mexico becam the first Laitin American member o the Organisation for Economic Co-operation an Development (OECD). It is clessifee'd as an upper-middle income kintra bi the Warld Bank an a newly industrialised kintra bi several analysts. The kintr is conseedert aith a regional pouer an a middle pouer, an is eften identifee'd as an emergin global pouer. Due tae its rich cultur an history, Mexico ranks first in Americae an seivent in the warld for nummer o UNESCO Warld Heritage Steids. Mexico is an ecologically megadiverse kintra, rankin fowert in the warld for its biodiversity. Mexico haes mony tourists: in 2016, it wis the aicht maist-veesitit kintra in the warld, wi 35 million internaitional arrivals. Mexico is a member o the Unitit Naitions (UN), the Warld Trade Organisation (WTO), the G8+5, the G20, the Unitin for Consensus group o the UN, an the Paceefic Alliance tred bloc. Bi 2050, Mexico coud potentially acome the warld's fift or seivent lairgest economy.

Pre-Columbian Mexico dates tae aboot 8000 BC an is identifee'd as ane o seiven cradles o ceevilisation an wis hame tae mony advanced Mesoamerican ceevilisations sic as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya, an Aztec afore first contact wi Europeans. In 1521, the Spaingie Empire conquered an colonised the territory frae its poleetically pouerfu base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan (pairt o Mexico Ceety), that wis admeenistert as the viceryalty o New Spain. Three centuries later, the territory becam a naition state follaein its recogneetion in 1821 efter the colony's Mexican War o Unthirldom. The post-unthirldom period wis tumultuous, chairacterised bi economic inequality an mony intense poleetical chynges. The Mexican–American War (1846–1848) led te a territorial cession o the extant northren territories tae the Unitit States. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a ceevil war, twa empires, an the Porfiriato occurred in the 19t century. The Porfiriato wis endit bi the stairt o the Mexican Revolution in 1910, that culminatit wi the promulgation o the 1917 Constitution an the emergence o the kintra's current poleetical seestem as a democratic republic.




#Article 298: Fowkrepublic o Cheenae (405 words)


The Fowkrepublic o Cheenae (FRC; Simplifee'd Cheenese: 中华人民共和国, Tradeetional Cheenese: 中華人民共和國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó , or Cheenae), is a sovereign state in East Asie. Wi a population o mair nor 1.3 billion fowk, the FRC is the maist populous kintra in the warld.

The Communist Pairty o Cheenae (CPC) haes led the FRC unner a ae-pairty seestem syne the kintra's foondin in 1949. Mauger this, naur hauf the FRC's economy haes been privatised in the bygane three decades unner Socialism wi Cheenese chairacteristics. Durin the 1980s, thir economic reforms helpit lift millions o fowk oot o puirtith, bringin the poverty rate doun tae 12% frae the oreeginal ae-third o the population (, that cites World Bank, 1992, p. 4 as the reference). Houaniver, acause o this mixin o mercat an planned economies, the FRC is faced wi a nummer o problems associate wi ilkane, includin unemployment an increasin rural/urban income gap. Mauger failins, greater prosperity haes led tae growin Cheenese global influence in economic, poleetical, meelitary, scieentific, technological, an cultural affairs.

In an ongaun dispute, the FRC claims suyerainty ower Taiwan an some naurby islands, that's been actually controllt bi the Republic o Cheenae syne 1949. The FRC threaps that the Republic o Cheena is an illegeetimate an supplantit entity an admeenistratively categorizes Taiwan as a province o the FRC. The term mainlaund China is whiles uised tae denote the aurie unner FRC owerins, but for normal excludin the twa Speicial Administrative Regions, Hong Kong an Macau.

The wird China his been yaised in Englis since the 16th centurie; hooever, it wasnae a wird used by the Cheenese theresels at this time. Hits origin has been traced through Portuguese, Malay, and Persian back to the Sanskrit wird Cīna, used in ancient India.

The official name o the modern state is the Fowksrepublic o Cheenae (simplified Chinese: 中华人民共和国; traditional Chinese: 中華人民共和國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó). The shorter form is Cheenae Zhōngguó (中国; 中國) fae zhōng (central) and guó (state), a term which developed durin the Western Zhou dynasty in reference tae its royal demesne. It was then applied tae the area around Luoyi (present-day Luoyang) during the Eastern Zhou and then to China's Central Plain afore being yaised as an occasional synonym fir the state under the Qing. It was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia fowk fae perceived barbarians. The name Zhongguo is also translated as Middle Kingdom in English.




#Article 299: Gairdenin (1907 words)


Gairdenin is the practice o growin an cultivatin plants as pairt o horticultur. In gardens, ornamental plants are eften grown for their flouers, foliage, or oweraw appearance; uiseful plants, such as ruit vegetables, leaf vegetables, fruits, an yerbs, are grown for consumption, for uise as dyes, or for medicinal or cosmetic uise. A gairdener is someane who practices gairdenin, either professionally or as a hobby. Gairdenin is considered tae be a relaxin activity for mony fowk.

Radio carbon datin frae the region o The Levantine Corridoor or The Aurea frae The Deid Sea tae The Damascus Basin lats us ken o the cultivatin an domesticatin o plaunts somewey aboot 9000 BC. Humans cultivatit bi haund uisin wuiden sticks, an no wi the plou, an wi evidence pyntin tae sic plaunts bein growne as cereal an pulses it is aiblins better cryed fairmin nor gairdenin i the modren meanin.

Whit we wad cry a Gairden nooadays, an whaur the practice o gairdenin as we ken it the day haed its springheid is Egyp some 4000 year syne. Ower the time sen thae days monie a style haes spreid oot an athort the warld tae adapt tae sindrie airts an climates,tho the main structur o things haes bade the same.

Egyptians haed Gairdens i the exack like sense o whit we cry a Gairden the day ,tho the auldest gairden pattren kent tae archeologie is aiblins the ane at Passargadae athin modren day Iran.

Anent the modren style o Gairdenin kythin in Europe we hae the auldest ensaumples at Pompeii i Italy. Tho maist weill kent for the muckle volcanic bluiterin at befawn the fowk o Pompeii bi Mount Vesuvius i 79 AD we hae frae thon period aroon 500 domesticatit Gairdens preserred. 

The airt an practice o Gairdenin micht hae kythed frae whan humans stairtit tae cultivate vegetables raither nor feild crops. Maistlins vegetable gairdens war steidit close tae the hame acause o the need for watter an for tae tak guid care o the plaunts.Aften sic a gairden aurea wad be rinkit in some wey for tae fend it frae livestock.

Tho firstlins fowk wad hae a need tae be sel staundin wi fuid frae the gairden tae feed thairsels,in time the gairden wad hae ontaen a wey tae eik land tae yer ain grunnd.

Oot throu the auld warld the'r evidence athin leiterature,airt an archeologie o gairdenin frae Egyp,Mesopotania,Greece ,Roum an The Byzantine Society alang wi aerlie Islam.

Gairdeners frae Kintraes at haed het simmer climates ontaen meisures tae evyte the scaudin o plaunts frae the Sun,maist aften bi plauntin tree's at wad gie oot muckle leaf spreid an sicwyce perteck an gie needit shade tae monie a bruckle plaunt.Wi this tree's becam a gey important pairt o gairdenin.

Athin ilk ane o the Auld Warld societies an culturs we can finnd a rowth o dieties at wad watch ower fertility an agticulture ,an alsae anes airtit taewards plaunts an crops.

Monie a myth is thirled tae tane or tither parteiclar feature o plaunts , the like o The Greek tales o Daphne or Narcissus or  The Mesopotanian tale o the tamarisk an the date palm.

Legends anent gairdens o undeemous bewté war fell popular i the auld warld,whuther its  The Gairden o Eden i  Christianity or  The Gairden o Eram athin Islam ,maist auncient societies haed a tale o sic a paradise gairden.Aft times gairdeners wad haud thaur ain gairdens in compear wi thon mythical anes.

Sib tae whit we see wi modren gairdeners  The Rose wes a flooer o gret admeiration amang sic societies, an alang wi The Lily, Sweet Violet an Narcissus war thocht as the maist popular.

The climate o sindrie lands wad hae airtit ilk people tae whit plaunts an Vegetables war maist suitit tae the aurea,an ower the year hunders monie culturs war tae spreid a fouth o varieties athort thair province an Impire.

Aerlie Islamic Gairdeners wad inbring plaunts tae sooth Spangie an sae we haed an innin tae fremmit species i medeival Europe.

The culture o gairdenin i this period is like tae hae been maist seen athin Monasteries an Castles. Foondit i the 6t year hunders Monte Casino Abbey i Campagnia  Italy wi its gairden haes becum an ensaumple tae be follaed oot through Wastren an Central Europe. Sib til thon is the design funnd wi the presserred plan o the gairdens o the 9t century  Abbey o Gall in Switzerlaund.  

Wi the needcessity for a Monasterie tae be self staundin Orchards an vegetable gairdens wad hae been o gret import .

Athin the monasterie, an Infirmary gairden wad hae been uised for tae growe herbs at wad gie heal tae onie smit or skaith at micht befaw the monks o a parteiclar Abbey, forby gien help tae the community ootby.

Whit is seen frae the plans anent St. Gall is at thir gairdens war ootset wi a rectangle shape wi narra paths atween growein plots at wad eith allou  the ingaitherin o the growne crop. Tho substenance an haelth wes the main raeson for sic gairdens wi the growein o sich vegetables the like o cabbage,ingans an radishes the releigious gate o St.Benedict wad hae been follaed bi Monks at alloued thaim tae ontak the manual labour side o monastic life.

Sib tae European Gairdens,medieval gairdens in Scotland war mainly uised for tae hail smits an seickness,hooanever,wi  The Kirk an Lairds the gairden wes eikit til tae becum a thochtie place  whaur a bodie micht gie ower tae thinkin upo gien aid tae savin thair sowels.

Hooses o the Nabs an Lairds in the era in Scotland war aften ramforced in some wey  an wi sich aftimes the gairden wes creatit athin a field ootby frae the main steid at wad gie peace frae the thrang.

The rinkit waa gairden wes seen aw ower Scotland,maistlins adae wi the climate hereanent at wes conseidered caulder an land at alloued depradation o crops bi deer an rabbits.

Wi sic like gairdens allouin for the betterment o syle an the jaellous like pride o the Lairds assuirin at onlie sich as thairsels gat benefit frae it,aftimes a a micro climate wes creatit that oot gied vegetables,fruits an herbs at war  o a better staundard nor the common fowk haed.

Taewards the late medieval years hedgin wes inpit tae the gairdens o Abbeys ,an lairger Nab faimlies betimes biggit a maze at wad hae a speiritual an thochtie gate tae hit ,whaur aw the fankles an deid ennds war meant tae hae ye speir yersel anent God an the Scripturs.

Inbrocht frae Europe wes the idea that the gairden wes for pleisure alsae, an no juist for substenance. The kythin o sic ideas brocht furth a wey o thinkin at wes tae blume wi the aerlie rennaisance.

Wi the rennaisance in Scotland, maist gairdens o pleisure war gotten awa wi an onlie smaw pairts o them can be funnd the day. Pentins an drawins are maistweys whit we hae nooadays o sich medieval Gairdens,tho twa sic Medieval wawed Gairdens bide hail. Ane at Cawdor Castle in Nairn an tither at Edzell Castle Angus.

The Auld Alliance atween Scotland an Fraunce haed inbrocht monie a Gairdenin style o gret importance tae wir Kintrae that war parteiclarly wrocht tae wir ain Scots climate.

The maist faur kent gairden design wes that o  The Gairden o Versaille. Buiks anent gairdenin frae Europe an Ingland haed kythed in Scotland an the buik cryed Scots Gardnerwes ootset i 1683 bi John Reid , a respeckit gairdener o the day that haed wirkit at  Niddrie Castle ,Hamilton Castle an Drummond Castle aforehaund.

He haed borraed frae an owersettin bi  John Evelyn o Nicholas de Bonnefon's Le Jardinier François, an adaptit his ideas tae a Scottis Climate.

The brawest ootsettin o The Versaille style gairdens i Scotland belanged the  Earl o Mar at his Pailace in Alloa. Canals ,parterres,stookies an ornamental trees war a wheen o the split new ferlies athin the Pailace Gairdens, alang wi the mair common sundials o the era.

The Ryal Botanic Gairdens o Embra wes foondit i 1670 as whit is cryed  A Physics Gairden.It wes tae pit thegither the gaitherins o Doctor Robert Sibbald an Botanist Andrew Balfour for tae create a soorce o medicine. Alsae a Physics Gairden wes foondit at  Glesca Varsity i 1703.

Gairdenin here in Scotland wesnae juist for The Nabs an Lairds. Ordinar common fowks an crofters wad hae haed thair ain gairdens roond aboot thair hooses,a smaa drystane aurea cryed planaticrae inThe Orkney an Shetland Isles an a Kailyaird i The Lawlands whaur the like o cabbage an kail wad hae been growne for substenance alang wi greens an tatties.

The mair fantoosh an exotic type plaunts like neep,ingans an rhubarb at firstlins wad hae kythed athin the Physic Gairdens o The Nabs an Lairds war tae ower time spreid oot intil uisse amang ordinar fowk.

New norries anent gairdenin war tae kythe wi the writins o Humphrey Repton (1752-1818) an wi sic like wad forder the appearance o the mair furmal gairden near tae a Mains hoose.

His ideas war ontaen bi  John Claudius Louden (1783-1843), wha wes ane o the maist eydent Gairdenin Authorties o thae days athort Britain an ayont, wi ideas o his bein wirkit intil the Gairdens at Drummond Castle, Dunrobin an Drumlandrig.

In the mids o the 19t Century we stairt tae see Public Parks aw ower Scotland wi the like o the designer Joseph Paxton (1803-1865), creatin baith  Kelvingrove Pairk an Queens Pairk in Glesca alang wi the public Pairk i  Dunfermline.

In wastren Scotland the betimes  mair couthie climate an syle  alloued for the makkin o  Plantsmans Gairdens at Crurae,Arduaine an Younger Botanic Gairdens in Argyllshire an Inverewe , Sutherland an Logan Botanic Gairdens in Wigtonshire.

In the period atween the Twa Warld  Wars Gairdenin wes gien encouragement bi central Govrenment tae be ontaen bi wir Wirkin Cless fowk. The upheezin o gairdenin wes tae allou for fowk tae haud wide frae less haelthy acteivities.

The awnin o a  gairden wes a thing at wes ootwith the maist feck o fowk in urban Scotland ower the heid o hoosin condeitions athin wir inner Ceities,hooanever thaim that war fortunate war liker tae growe for substenance ither nor wi the gairden suburb model  at wes mair popular in Ingland.
The kythin o allotments wes tae gie easment tae monie, an bi 1939 Scotland haed ower 20,000.

Maistweys it wes amang the middle clesses at gairdenin becam popular in yon period,nae doots upheezed bi Horticultural Shows, Pairk Gairdens an betimes airticles at war prentit athin local Newspapers.

In the years efter The Saicont Warld War, Radio firtlins, an efterhaund TV war tae ootgie mair entertainment norries anent gairdenin, an wi mair an mair fowk able for tae awn gairdens we hae in 1978 the first braidcastin o the aye popular Gairdenin Programme The Beechgrove Garden filmed in Aiberdeen bi the BBC that wes airtit taewards mair suburban Gairdeners.

Nooadays gairdenin is aye tae the fore amang wir populace an wi the ootsettin o a rowth o DIY gairdenin buiks an the fouth o wabsteids on the internet anent the subjeck, gairden is noo a weill staiblisht hobby for monie hame awners the day.

The'r a wheen sindrie weys a bodie can ontak gairdenin nooadays. The leet ootset ablo gies us a cuttie innin tae ilkane o the maist popular kinnds.




#Article 300: Scots Wha Hae (309 words)


Scots Wha Hae is a poem/sang at wis written bi Robert Burns in 1793 tae mimic a speech gien bi Robert the Brus tae his airmy afore the Battle o Bannockburn in 1314.  Tho Burns scrived the wirds, the muisic is gey auld (the tuin is Hey Tuttie Tattie that legend hauds wis played by the Scots airmy afore the battle).

The first teetle o the sang wis Robert Bruce's March To Bannockburn - that wis the teetle that it wis first kent unner, tho nou it is mair for ordinar kent as 'Scots Wha Hae'.

Scots Wha Hae is the pairty sang o the Scots National Pairty and is sung efter their conferences ilka year.

The poem shaws the influence o the makar Blind Harry (kent as Blind Hary, or Henry the Minstrel an aw) as ye can see fae Harry's line:

A false usurper sinks in every foe 
And liberty returns with every blow

that Burns cried A couplet wirthy o Homer an adaptit as:

Lay the proud usurpers low!  
Tyrants fall in every foe!  
Liberty's in every blow!

'Scots, wha hae wi' Wallace bled, 
Scots, wham Bruce has aften led, 
Welcome tae your gory bed, 
Or tae Victorie!

'Now's the day, an now's the hour: 
See the front o' battle lour, 
See approach proud Edward's power - 
Chains an Slaverie!

'Wha will be a traitor knave? 
Wha will fill a coward's grave? 
Wha sae base as be a slave? 
Let him turn an flee!

'Wha, for Scotland's king an law, 
Freedom's sword will strongly draw, 
Freeman stand, or Freeman fa', 
Let him follae me!

'By Oppression's woes an pains! 
By your sons in servile chains! 
We will drain our dearest veins, 
But they shall be free!

'Lay the proud usurpers low! 
Tyrants fall in every foe! 
Liberty's in every blow! - 
Let us do or dee!'




#Article 301: Care Bears (161 words)


The Care Bears is a sucessfu playock franchise frae the 1980s. Mair nor fowerty million o thir stappit teddy beirs, makkit in a wheen sindry colours, wis selt frae 1983 tae 1987. Ilka beir haes a name, a job, an a seembol tied tae it. For ensaumple, Bedtime Bear helps  fowk sleep, an haes a crescent blue muin on his kyte.

The playocks begoud life as chairacters on cairts in 1981; the oreeginal airtwark wis duin bi Elena Kucharik. Sin syne, ither playocks, the Care Bear Cuisins, wis introduced.

Thay kythed in three ainimatit films for the cinema in the mid-1980s an aw. A relatit TV series frae DIC an, efter, Canadae's Nelvana Limitit cam oot at awmaist that same time.

Newlins, Care Bear playocks haes been brocht back in a new edeetion for the 21st century. As pairt o this retour, the Beirs haes kythed in thair first twa DVD films (baith computer-ainimatit), an a puckle video gemmes an aw.




#Article 302: Caitch (150 words)


Caitch is a gemme whaur raquettes an wechty baws is uised, it is played inby agin waws an sklentin ruifs. Caitch is kent as real tennis in Ingland. The warld's auldest caitchpule is at Fawkland in Fife, an wis biggit in 1539 bi James V in the Pailace gairden. 

The gemme stertit wi Alexander III (1249-86) an wis like as no feshed frae Fraunce. Lang-syne there wis caitchpules in Saunt Andras, Perth, Edinburgh an Stirlin. 

James VI scrieved in 1598 Basilicon Doron for his auld son, Prince Henry (eild 4): ...the exercises that I uolde haue you to use (althoch but moderatlie not making a crafte of thaime) are rinning, leaping, urestling, fensing, dansing  playing at the cache.  

The gemme kythes in The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner bi James Hogg in 1824.

The gemme is played yet at Fawkland Pailace bi fowk frae a wee club.




#Article 303: Nepal (323 words)


Nepal (  Nepali: नेपाल ), offeecially the Federal Democratic Republic o Nepal, is a  landlockt kintra in Sooth Asie. It is locatit in the Himalayas an bordered tae the north bi the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae, an tae the sooth, east, an wast bi the Republic o Indie. Wi an aurie o 147,181 square kilometres (56,827 sq mi) an a population o approximately 30 million, Nepal is the warld's 93rd lairgest kintra b land mass an the 41st maist populous kintra. Kathmandu is the naition's caipital an the kintra's lairgest metropolis.

Nepal haes a rich geography. The muntainous north haes aicht o the warld's ten tawest muntains, includin the hichtest pynt on Yird, Munt Everest, cawed Sagarmatha in Nepali.  It contains mair nor 240 peaks ower 20,000 ft (6,096 m) abuin sea level. The fertile an humid sooth is heavily urbanised.

Bi some measures, Hinduism is practised bi a lairger majority o fowk in Nepal than in ony ither naition. Buddhism, tho a minority faith in the kintra, is linkt historically wi Nepal as the birthplace o the Buddha. Thare are 3 different buddhist tradeetions: Himalayan Buddhism, Buddhism o Kathmandu Valley (maistly Mahayana an Vajrayana), an an aa the Theravada Buddhism.

Aboot hauf o the population live belaw the internaitional poverty line o $1.25 a day.

A monarchy throughoot maist o its history, Nepal wis ruled bi the Shah dynasty o keengs frae 1768, when Prithvi Narayan Shah unified its mony sma kinricks. In 2006, housomeivver, a decade-lang Fowkrevolution bi the Communist Pairty o Nepal (Maoist) alang wi several weeks o mass protests bi aw major poleetical pairties o Nepal culminatit in a peace accord, an the ensuin elections for the constituent assembly votit owerwhelmingly in favor o the abdication o the last Nepali monarch Gyanendra Shah an the establishment o a federal democratic republic in 28 Mey 2008. The first Preses o Nepal, Ram Baran Yadav, wis sworn in on 23 Julie 2008.




#Article 304: North Sea (438 words)


The North Sea, umwhile kent as the German Ocean is a pairt o the Atlantic Ocean. The North Sea lies atween Norrowey an Denmark tae the east, Scotland an Ingland tae the wast, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium an Fraunce tae the sooth.

The Skagerrak jynes the North Sea tae the Baltic Sea. In the sooth, the North Sea chynges intil the Inglis Chainel, a sea atween Ingland an Fraunce. This is cried the Straight o Dover an is gey busy wi ships an the Skagerrak is at an imaginarie line atween Lindesnes in Norrowey, an Hanstholm in Denmark. Tae the north, the North Sea is open towards the Atlantic. The mairch atween the twa is an imaginarie line frae Northren Scotland, tae Shetland, an then on tae Ålesund in Norrowey. Accordin tae the Oslo-Paris Treaty o 1962 it is a bittie mair tae the wast an the north. The treaty puts it at 5° wast an 62° north. That is at the heicht o the Geirangerfjord in Norrowey.

On average, the North Sea haes a depth o nae mair nor 94 metres. Aboot 80 million fowk bide near the North Sea, at maist 150 km awa fae the coast. Thegither wi the Inglis Channel tae the sooth, the soothren North Sea is the maist busy body ae watter in the yird.

Weel-kent rivers that drains intil the North Sea include the Tay (at Dundee), the Forth (at Embra), the Tyne (at Newcastle), the Elbe (at Cuxhaven), the Weser (at Bremerhaven), the Ems at Emden, the Rhine an Meuse (at Rotterdam), the Scheldt (at Flushing), the Thames, an the Humber (at Hull).

The Kiel Canal, ane o the yird's busiest artificial watterways, connects the North Sea wi the Baltic Sea.

In the last ice age the North Sea wis coverit bi muckle auries o ice cried glaciers. Aroond 20,000 year ago the ice meltit an the North Sea wis made.

In the 1960s geologists foond muckle auries o natural gas an ile unner the North Sea. Maist o the ile fields are owned bi the Unitit Kinrick an Norrowey bit some are owned bi Denmark, the Netherlands an Germany. Drillin began in the 1980s an led tae a famous argument atween Ingland an Scotland aboot hou the sillar frae the ile should be spent.

Fowk hae been fishin in the North Sea lang syne. Houaniver, sae mony fish are caught that the new fish micht nae be able tae grow fast enough tae keep the fishery going.

Pirrs, pictarnies, tammie norries, razorbills, tarrocks an ither seabirds bide on the North Sea coast. Mony coastal auries is protectit nature reserves.




#Article 305: Martin O'Neill (148 words)


Martin O'Neill is a former Northern-Erse fitbaw player. Until resignin the post on 9 August 2010, he wis manager of Aston Villa. He maist famously played wi Nottingham Forest whaur he wan twa European Cup. As a manager he has managed Wycombe Wanders, Norwich Ceity, Leicester Ceity, Aston Villa an Celtic. In 2000 efter winnin twa Leage Cups wi Leicester he becam manager o Celtic the team he follaed syne he wis a bairn. At Celtic he enjoyed his maist successfu spell whaur he wan three League teetles, three Scots Cups an ae League Cups as weel as haein led the team tae the 2003 UEFA Cup Feenal. In 2005 efter 5 year in chairge o Celtic he haed tae staund doun as manager for tae keep an ee on his seek wifie Geraldine. He is regardit is a Celtic's greatest manager syne the umwhile great Jock Stein.




#Article 306: Jock Stein (185 words)


Jock Stein wis a Scots fitbaa player an manager wha is maist famous fur managin Celtic tae the European Cup win o 1967. As player Jock wis a centre-hauf playin fur his local team Blantyre Vics afore muivin tae Coatbrig side Albion Rovers. He moved tae play wi Llaneli in Wales afore signing fur Celtic. He stairtit his career managing wi Celtic Reserve aifter his career as a player cut cut shoart bi injury. He went oan tae manage Dunfermline an Hibernian afore muivin back tae Celtic in 1965. In his first saison at Celtic he lead tham tae win the Scottish Cup oer his auld team Dunfermline. In 1966 the League wis tae foallie in whit becam the first o the famour nine in a row. Aifter leaving Celtic in 1978 he went oan tae manage the Scottish fitba team an teuk them tae the 1982 Warld Cup in Spain. In 1985 aifter watching his team secure a place for Mexico 1986 Warld Cup Jock dee'd o ae hert attack in Ninian Park in Cairdiff, Wales. He is fondly rememberit bi a Scots fowks.




#Article 307: Willie Maley (121 words)


Willie Malley is a umwhile Erse borne Scots fitbaa player an manager. He wis pairt of the oreiginal Celtic team in 1888 alang wi his brither Tam Malley. In 1893 he wis appointit as Celtic's first manager a poseition wheilk he held tae 1940 makkin him Celtic's langest servin manager. In his time as Celtic manager he wan 19 League titles, 13 Scottish Cups, 18 Glesgae Cups, 23 Glesgae Merchants Charity's Cups an three ane aff trophies Glesgae International Exhibeition Cup in 1902, Ferencvaros Vase in 1914 an the Empire Exhibeition Cup in 1938. Amang the 18 League he lead Celtic tae 6 League titles in a row, a recort that remainit in tact til Celtic thairsels broke it in 1972.




#Article 308: UEFA Champions League (151 words)


The UEFA Champions League (uisually referred tae as simply the Champions League or historically as the European Cup) is an annual association fitbaa cup competition organised bi UEFA since 1955 for the top fitbaa clubs in Europe. The final o the competition is the maist watched annual sportin event warldwide, drawin juist ower 100 million television viewers.

Prior tae 1992 the tournament wis offeecially cawed the European Champion Clubs' Cup but wis uisually referred tae as simply the European Cup or European Champions' Cup. The competition wis initially a straight knockoot competition open anerlie tae the champion club o ilka kintra. Durin the 1990s the tournament began tae be expandit, incorporatin a roond-robin group phase an mair teams. Europe's strangest naitional leagues nou provide up tae fower teams ilka for the competeetion. The UEFA Champions League shoud no be ramfeeselt wi the UEFA Europa League, umwhile kent as the UEFA Cup.




#Article 309: Manchester United F.C. (275 words)


Manchester United Football Club is an Inglis fitbaw club. Thay play thair haime gemmes at Old Trafford in Greater Manchester, the maist muckle fitbaw stadium in the Unitit Kinrick. Thay ar the maist succesfu Inglis fitba team o the syne the beginin o the Inglis Premiership. Syne the Premiership began thay hae wan the 13 League titles, 4 FA Cups, 2 League Cups, the European Cup Winners Cup an 2 European Cup.

Manchester United's first trophy wis the Manchester Cup, which it wan as Newton Heath in 1886. In 1908, the club wan its first league title, an wan the FA Cup for the first time the follaein year. In terms o the nummer o trophies wan, Manchester United's maist successfu decade wis the 1990s; the club wan five league titles, fower FA Cups, ane League Cup, five Charity Shields (ane shared), ane UEFA Champions League, ane UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, ane UEFA Super Cup an ane Intercontinental Cup.

The club currently haulds the record for maist tap-diveesion titles (20), the maist FA Cups (11), an the maist FA Cup Feenal appearances (18). Manchester United haulds the record for the maist Premier League titles (13), an wis the first Inglis team tae win the European Cup in 1968.

The anelie major honour that Manchester Unitit haes niver wan is the UEFA Europa League, awtho the team reached the quairter-feenals in 1984–85 an the semi-feenals o the competeetion's precursor toornament, the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, in 1964–65.

Especially short competitions sic as the Charity/Community Shield, Intercontinental Cup (nou defunct), FIFA Club World Cup or Super Cup ar nae generally considered tae contribute towards a Double or Treble.




#Article 310: FC Porto (351 words)


Futebol Clube do Porto () (), commonly kent as FC Porto, Porto, or FCP, is a Portuguese fitbaw team frae the ceety o Porto, in the northren region o the kintra. Foondit in Porto in 1893 bi Monteiro da Costa, it is ane o the Três Grandes, or Big Three, fitbaw clubs in Portugal, wi Sport Lisboa e Benfica an Sporting Clube de Portugal being the ither twa clubs, FC Porto's twa biggest rivals.

FC Porto is an internaitionally laudit team, wi a naitional record o sax internaitional titles, becomin European an Warld Champions twice each in the 1987 an 2004 saisons. In 1987, FC Porto an aa gained the UEFA Supercup (anither first for Portugal) an, in 2004, it brocht Portugal's first UEFA Champions League trophy. In 1987, FC Porto became ane o a few teams in the Warld tae hauld in possession o three major internaitional titles simultaneous (the ae ane in Portugal). Domestically, they haud the best record o five titles in a row, haein wan the Portuguese Liga 25 times. Ither titles wan bi the club include the Portuguese Cup 20 times an Portuguese Supercup 17 times (62 naitional titles).

The fitbaw hame grund is the Estádio do Dragão, that replaced the hame thay haed aforehaun, Estádio das Antas, in 2003. A new multi-sport arena naur the stadium wis newlins completit tae harbour FC Porto's ither sports like the handbaa an basketbaa teams, whilk is regular contenders for the naitional titles an the roller hockey section, amang the best in the sport warldwide. Supporters an players o the club is eiknamed Portistas or Dragões.

The oreeginal stadium still exists (the field o constitution), nou servin the formation o the club, unner the name o Dragon Force. Commercially, the club haes several shops cried Loja Azul (Blue Store) scattered aroond the ceety, includin twa uised wi offeecial supplier Nike. Syne 1994, a merchandisin guids fair cried Portomania is organized durin the pre-saison. FC Porto publishes ane o the aulder club-relatit publications in Europe: a monthly 60-page fou-colour magazine cried Dragões (Dragons) that haes existit syne the early 1980s.




#Article 311: Powmont (101 words)


Powmont (Inglis: Polmont; Scots Gaelic: Poll-Mhonaidh (Pool o the Hill)) is a clachan that lees fower mile (6.5 km) tae the aest o Fawkirk, Scotland. It lees close tae the M9 motorwey connectin Edinburgh an Glesca. Powmont railwey station is locate on the main Edinburgh tae Glesca railwey line.

The population o Powmont is aboot 5,422.

The Cooncilor for Powmont is Maucom Nicol o Auld Powmont, he's hauden the teetle syne 2000. Mony fowk associates Powmont wi the Young Offenders Institution (HMYOI) altho it is actually in the neebourin clachan Reddinmuirheid. The clachan haes a gowf coorse an ither sportin faceelities.




#Article 312: Germany (422 words)


Germany (, ), offeecially the Federal Republic o Germany (, ), is a federal pairlamentary republic in central-wastren Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area o , an haes a maistly temperate saisonal climate. Wi aboot 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the maist populous member state o the European Union. Efter the Unitit States, it is the saicont maist popular immigration destination in the warld. Germany's caipital an lairgest metropolis is Berlin, while its mucklest conurbation is the Ruhr (main centres: Dortmund an Essen). Ither major toons include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf an Leipzig.

Various Germanic tribes hae inhabitit the northren pairts o modren Germany syne clessical antiquity. A region named Germanie wis documentit afore 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expandit soothwart. Beginnin in the 10t century, German territories formed a central pairt o the Haly Roman Empire. During the 16t century, northren German regions becam the centre o the Protestant Reformation.

In 1871, Germany becam a nation state whan maist o the German states unified intae the Proushie-dominatit German Empire. Efter Warld War I an the German Revolution o 1918–1919, the Empire wis replaced bi the pairlamentary Weimar Republic. The establishment o the naitional socialist dictatorship in 1933 led tae Warld War II an the Holocaust. Efter a period o Allied occupation, twa German states wis foondit: the Federal Republic o Germany (commonly kent as Wast Germany) an the German Democratic Republic (commonly kent as East Germany). In 1990, the kintra wis reunifee'd.

In the 21st century, Germany is a great pouer an haes the warld's fowerth-lairgest economy bi nominal GDP, as weel as the fift-lairgest bi PPP. As a global leader in several industrial an technological sectors, it is baith the warld's third-lairgest exporter an importer o guids. Germany is a developit kintra wi a gey an heich staundart o livin susteened bi a skilled an productive society. It uphaulds a social security an universal heal care seestem, environmental pertection an a tuition-free varsity eddication.

Germany wis a foondin member o the European Union in 1993. It is pairt o the Schengen Area, an becam a co-foonder o the Eurozone in 1999. Germany is a member o the Unitit Naitions, NATO, the G8, the G20, an the OECD. The naitional militar expenditur is the 9t heichest in the warld. Kent fir its rich cultural history, Germany haes been continuously the hame o influential airtists, philosophers, muisickers, sportsfowk,  entrepreneurs, scientists, ingineers, an inventors.

German Pairlament haes twa chambers:

Germany haes 16 federal states:




#Article 313: Judaism (137 words)


Judaism is ane o the first recordit monotheistic relfaiths an ane o the auldest releegious tradeetions that's aye follaed the day. The vailyies an history o the Jewish fowk is a muckle pairt o the foonds o ither Abrahamic releegions sic as Christianity, Islam, Samaritanism an the Bahá'í Faith. Thar ar 14.5 and 17.4 million Jewish fowk aboot the Yird the nou.

The Jewish fowk, kent as the Jews ( Yehudim ) forby, are a naition an ethnoreleegious group oreeginatin in the Israelites or Ebreus o the Auncient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, naitionality, an releegion are strangly interrelatit, as Judaism is the traditional faith o the Jewish naition. Converts tae Judaism, whose status as Jews athin the Jewish ethnos is equal tae those born intae it, hae been absorbed intae the Jewish fowk throughoot the millennie.




#Article 314: Aerospace (212 words)


Aerospace concerns the atmosphere o the Yird an space inby it.  Maistlins the wird is uised tae mean the industry that researches, designs, maks, rins, an maintains vehicles traivellin thro this air an space.  Aerospace is a gey wide field, wi mony commercial, industrial an military uisses.

Aerospace isna the same as airspace, which is a wird uised tae spik aboot the pheesical air space richt abuin a pynt on the grun.

In maist industrial kintras, the aerospace industry is a jynt wark atween public an private industries. For exemplar, some kintras haes a space programme unner the command o the govrenment, sic as NASA in the Unitit States, ESA in Europe, the Canadian Space Agency in Canadae, the Indian Space Research Organisation in Indie, RKA in Roushie, the China National Space Administration in Cheenae, the Iranian Space Agency in Iran an SUPARCO in Pakistan.

Alang wi thae public space programmes, mony companies mak technical tuils an components sic as spaceships an satellites. Some weel-kent companies warkin on space programmes are Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, EADS, an Boeing. Thae companies taks pairt forby in ither airts o aerospace sic as the makkin o aircraft. Mony kintras haes air transport companies an aw, exemplars bein Air France and Air India amang mony ithers.




#Article 315: Computer (281 words)


A computer is a device that can be instructit tae cairy oot arbitrar sequences o arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The abeelity o computers tae follae generalised sets o operations, cried programs, enables them tae perform an extremely wide range o tasks.

Sic computers are used as control seestems for a verra wide variety o industrial an consumer devices. This includes semple special purpose devices lik microwave uivens an remote controls, factory devices sic as industrial robots an computer assistit design, but an aa in general purpose devices lik personal computers an mobile devices sic as smairtphones. The Internet is run on computers an it connects millions o ither computers.

Syne auncient times, semple manual devices lik the abacus aidit fowk in daein calculations. Early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices war biggit tae automate lang tedisome tasks, sic as guidin paiterns for luims. Mair sophisticatit electrical machines did specialised analogue calculations in the early 20t century. The first deegital electronic calculatin machines war developed in Warld War II. The speed, pouer, an versatility o computers haes increased conteenuously an dramatically syne then.

Conventionally, a modren computer consists o at least ane processin element, teepically a central processin unit (CPU), an some form o memory. The processin element cairies out arithmetic an logical operations, an a sequencin an control unit can chynge the order o operations in response tae stored information. Peripheral devices include input devices (keybuirds, mice, joystick, etc.), ootput devices (monitor screens, prenters, etc.), an input/ootput devices that perform baith functions (e.g., the 2000s-era titchscreen). Peripheral devices allou information tae be retrieved frae a freemit soorce an thay enable the result o operations tae be saufit an retrieved.




#Article 316: Fire (115 words)


Fire (or fyr) is a phenomenon o combustion kyth'd in strang heat an licht in the furm o a lowe or flames. The wird fire whan uis'd wi an indefinit artikil is forordnar uis'd ti deskrive aither a fuel in a state o combustion (sic as a campfire or a fire in a brace or kitchen stove) or an instance o veilent, destructive an uncontrol'd burnin (sic as a wildfire an fires in biggins an vehicles.

Fire isna a state o maiter: raither, it is an exothermic chemical reaction accompanied bi intense heat lowsed durin a swith oxidation o combustible material. Fire can be visibil as the bricht glowe an flames an can mak reek.




#Article 317: Zoology (108 words)


Zoologie is the brainch o biology whilk studies the ainimal kinrick, sic as the structur, embryology, evolution, clessification, habits, an distribution o aw ainimals, baith tae the fore an extinct, an hou thay interact wi thair ecoseestems. The wird is derived frae Auncient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i.e. ainimal an λόγος, logos, i.e. kennin, study. Semmlin twathry sinthery fiels an makkin uiss o mony methodologies, Zoology haes haed a langsome oncome ower mony yeir until the meantime. In the bygane, the furst thochts tae the fore anent zoology hae been gaen us bi Aristotle. The mony ettlins tae sort ilka ainimal specie hae been aft recognosced syne thontim.  




#Article 318: Finland (1810 words)


Finland (Finnish: Suomi), offeecially the Republic o Finland, (Finnish: Suomen tasavalta), is a Nordic kintra situatit in the Fennoscandie region o Northren Europe. Wastlins, it haes a mairch wi Swaden, norlins wi Norawa an eastlins wi Roushie, while Estonie lees soothlins athort the Gulf o Finland.

Aroond 5.4 million fowk reside in Finland, wi the majority concentratit in the soothren region. It is the aicht lairgest kintra in Europe in terms o aurie an the maist sparsely populatit kintra in the European Union. Finland is a pairliamentary republic wi a central govrenment based in Helsinki an local govrenments in 342 municipalities. A tot o aboot ane hunner residents live in the Greater Helsinki aurie; (whilk includes Helsinki, Espoo, Kauniainen an Vantaa), an a third o the kintra's GDP is produced thare. Ither lairger ceeties include Tampere, Turku, Oulu, Jyväskylä, Lahti, Kuopio an Kouvola.

Finland wis heestorically a pairt o Swaden an frae 1809 on, an autonomous Grand Duchy within the Roushie Empire. Finnish Declaration o Unthirldom frae Roushie in 1917 wis follaed bi a ceevil war, wars agin the Soviet Union an Nazi Germany, an a period o offeecial neutrality in the Cauld War. Finland jyned the Unitit Naitions in 1955, the OECD in 1969, the European Union in 1995, an the eurozone syne its inception.

Finland wis a relative latecomer tae industrialisation, remainin a lairgely agrarian kintra til the 1950s. Syne, economic development wis rapid, Finland biggit an extensive welfare state an balanced atween the East an the Wast in global economics an politics. The kintra taps continuously the internaitional comparisons o naitional performance. Finland ranks the best kintra in the warld in the 2010 Newsweek survey based on heal, economic dynamism, eddication, poleetical environment an quality o life. Finland haes been ranked the seicont maist stable kintra in the warld an the first in the 2009 Legatum Prosperity ratin.

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Finland mey be auldest bydit-in kintra o aa the Nordic kintras, gin the staid o Susiluola is as auld as jaloused - 130,000 year. Gin no, the auldest traces o human habitation in Finland is aboot 8500 BC, whan evidents o a hunter-gaitherir cultur hae been funn. Fowk seem tae hae settled mair aroond the 6t yearthoosan BC.
The Finnish Bronze Eild stairtit aroond 1500 BC, an the Airn Eild sum thoosan year efter that. The Airn Eild in Finland endit aroond 1200 AD. Atween the twa, thare wis a great cultural growthe, an graffs o the time shaw evidents o a sopheesticatit cultur, likely ruled ower bi a chieftanlike elite. Thare isnae onie evidents o state-formin at thair time.

In the monie haundowers o pouer an chynges o whit wis the dominant kinrick in Scandinavie in thir tymes, Finland nivir got the upper haund, an wis aye ruled ower bi ane o the ithir naitions, fer ordinar Swaden, tho eistern pairts wur aften pairt o Roushie territory. As a result o this, Swadish becam a mair heich status leid nor Finnish.

It wis at this time that Finland wis convertit tae Christianity. Syne Wastren Europe at thair time wis Roman Catholic an Roushie wis Orthadox, it is eften said that at thair time Eastren Finland merked the mairch atween Catholick an Orthadox Christendom.

Eastron Finland wis the staid o monie fechts atween the Finns an Roushians - fer insaumple the war o 1495-7. Accordin tae Finnish fowklair, the dun-toun wis saufed in a muckle Roushie seige bi an unco o God.

As pairt o the Swadish Empire unner Gustav II Adolf, Finland jyned the Thirty Years War on the Protestant side. The Finnish cavalry, cried the Hakkapeliitat played a muckle pairt in monie o Adolphus' victories. In thir tymes, Swaden wis ane o Europe's maist important pouers, an her airmie wis ane o the best; aiblins the best in the warld, an the Hakkapeliitat wer an important factor in that; feared an respectit bi thair faes.

In a releegious sense, the 17t yearhunder wis a tyme o Lutheran domination an strickness efter the Reformation. The law o Moses wis declared the law o the land in 1608, an the skeel o readin became mair widespread due tae efforts tae teach the haill fowk tae read the Bible an ithir releegious texts.

A gey bad hership atween 1697 an 1699 reducit the Finnish population bi sumwhar in the region o 30%, an no lang efter anithir lang war furder hammered the Finns wi mair trouble.

Ower the 18t yearhunder, Finland wis twa tyme thirled bi Roushie, an a series o wars atween Roushie an Swaden followit. While pairt war annexed bi Roushie an the wars brocht misery tae the local fowk, Finland as pairt o Swaden wis haen sum muckle impruivments an aa - technological an social forbye, sic as the mair democratic reforms in parliament, or the makkin o the Empire's first het air balloon in 1784 (anerlie a year efter the device wis inventit in Fraunce).

Houmever, in 1771 Gustav III o Swaden teuk owerins o the kinrick, horsed oot the parliament an stairtit anithir, unsuccessfou war agin Roushie. Roushie agitatit naitionalist feelins in Finland tae try an set up an unthirlt Finnish state an turn Swaden's plans tapsalteerie, bot wi smaa success.

The Finnish War o 1808-9 saw Finland faa intae Roushian haunds, an it became a Grand Duchy o the Roushian Empire. The 19t yearhunder saw industrialisation (sic as minin, forestry an machin warkin) tak hauld o Finnish ceeties, tho the fowk as a haill wad remain fer ordinar landward warkers til the mid 20t yearhunder.

A surge o naitionalism, aften leid-based, saw Finns stairt tae demand mair autonomy, an rejeck Swadish fer Finnish. A muckle pairt o this wis the publication o the naitional epic Kalevala in 1835. The process o naition biggin lairgely involvit the Leid Strife, whilk got monie Finns tae view thaimsels as pairt o Finnish naition, an stairtit tae want naethin tae dae wi Roushie ava. This, alang wi seemilar naitionalist movements in ithir pairts o the Empire, promptit a response o Roushiefication frae the authorities, whilk mainly servit tae hairden naitionalist feelin.

As a result o the 1905 Roushian Revolution, Finland wis grantit a parliament. Universal sufferage wis implementit, makkin Finland the first kintra in Europe tae gie wummin the vote.

In the wheen o confusion follaein the Bolshevik takkin o pouer in Roushie in October 1917, it wis decidit that Roushie aither cuilnae or shuildnae hae control ower the non-Roushian pairts o the Empire, an sae the feck o thaim wer grantit unthirldom, Finland amang thaim. Finland became an unthirlt state fer the first tyme on the 6t o December 1917.
Frae Januar tae Mey 1918 a bitter ceevil war wis fechtit atween the bourgeois Whites led bi C.G.E. Mannerheim, an the communist Reds. The Whites eventually won the war, tho it left a bitter legacy whilk didnae end suin, an causit diveesion fer monie year efterward. The economic devastation whilk the war haed causit wesnae owercum til 1925.

Efter the election o Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg as Finland's first preses, the new republic haed a wheen o problems tae face. Ane o thir wis the issue o the Åland Islands, whilk wer owerwhelminly Swadish speakin an wantit tae return tae Swadish haunds. Housamever the Finns didnae want tae gie up the Islands, an offered the Islands unthirlt status as pairt o Finland. The Ålanders didna approve o this, an sae the League o Naitions wis cried in. The peacefu dounset o issue (muckle alang the lines the Finns wantit) wis ane o the League's gey few successes.

Relations wi the Soviet Union wernae gey guid atween the wars, despite the Treaty of Tartu in 1920. Incidents alang the mairch an, in 1932, Soviet restreections on Finnish shippin in the Gulf o Finland an Loch Lagoda (baith o whilk wer closed tae Finns in 1937).

Anithir problem wis the proto-facist Lapua Movement, whilk wis the result o naitionalist an anti-communist feelin left ower frae the Ceevil War. Efter a failed attempt tae tak pouer in 1932, the group wis banned.
At thir tyme ther wis an aa a failed attempt tae introduce prohibition. The attempt lastit frae 1919 tae 1932. As wi the seemilar attempt in Americae, this failed an haed a gey bad effect on crime rates an drinkin cultur.

Anti-communist feelin wis still strang in Finland, an relation wi the USSR haed nevir been gey guid ava in onie case, an eikit till Finnish dreids fer thair survivin as a fowk an naition (syne thay kent mair anent the Purges nor maist ithir kintras) meant that whan the war stairtit, the Finns an Soviets wer in opposeetion tae ilk ithir. Finland fechtit the Soviet Union twa tyme in the Seicont Warld War, firstly defendin thairsels in the Winter War o 1939-40 an then, wi support frae Nazi Germany thay carriet oot the Continuation War o 1941-44, in whilk thay invatit pairts o wastron Roushie, tho thay eventually lost o Petsamo, thair ainlie ice-free hyne.
Eventually the USSR defeatit thaim, an unner armistice condeetions, thay fecht agin Germany in the Lapland War o 1944-5 in whilk the Finns forced the Germans tae retreat tae yont Northin Finland an bak intae Norrowey, whilk at thir tyme wes thirlt tae Germany.

In 1955 Finland jyned baith the Nordic Council an the Unitit Naitions an the European Free Tred Association in 1986. Finland faced sum muckle economic problems in the eirlie 1990s fer twa main reasons. Firstly ther wis the economic owerheat frae thay gey leeberal policies o the auchties; an seicont the dissoultion o the USSR (Finland's mucklemaist tred pairtner) in 1991. Thir problems wer lairlie solvit bi jynin the EU (European Union) 1995. The day Finland is ane o the maist weil-aff an heichlie educatit kintras in the warld.

Finland is a parliamentary democracy, an the preses the nou is Sauli Niinistö. Finland, lik the lave o the Nordic kintras is kent fer haein a leeberal society an a gey guid welfare state. It is ane o the maist free kintras an aw, wi great freedom o the press, ceevil liberties, poleetical richts an accordin tae Transparency International is the least corrupt kintra in the warld. Finland wis an aa the first kintra tae gie wummin the richt tae vote.

Finland's offeecial leids is Finnish an Swadish, an forby thon, Sami leids is spak in northren pairts o Finland.

The muckle feck o Finnish fowk (92%) hae Finnish as thair mithir leid. Aboot 5.5% hae Finland Swedish (kent as Finlandsvenska, whilk is a tait deeferant frae whit is spak in Swaden), an less nor 7,000 hae ane o the thrie Sami leids spak in Finland. Roushie an Estonian ar spak bi gey smaa minorities. Forbye, maist Finns are mair nor a tait guid at Inglis, whilk thay leir at schuill, an monie hae French or German an aa.




#Article 319: Kalevala (3041 words)


Kalevala is an epic poem that wis pittin thegither frae Finnish fowklair bi Elias Lönnrot in the 19t century. For ordinar it is cried the naitional epic o Finland an is tradeetionaly thocht o as ane o the maist important warks in the hail o Finnish leeteratur. It is jaloused bi some that the settin furth o Kalevala fendit some o the inspirin for the naitional waukenin that in the end won Finland's unthirldom frae Roushie in 1917, as weel as bein a gey important wark in the heezin o the Finnish leid.

Syne the Finnish leid haesna ony airticles, definite or indefinate, sae it is a tait inaccurate for fowk tae cry the epic The Kalevala, as juist Kalevala is mair near the Finnish. The name means something lik launds o Kaleva syne the Finnish suffix -la/lä means steid.

The epic conseests o 22,795 verses, sindert intae fifty cantos or chaipters.
Twa Finnic tribes/fowks, the Kvens an the Karelians is discussed braidly in Kalevala.

Elias Lönnrot (1802–84) wis a beukman an a destrict dug raiser in Kainuu, an eastren pairt o Finland that in his time wis an autonomous Graund Duchy. The son o a teylor in the clachan o Sammantti, he cam intil the varsity in Turku (that is replaced bi the Varsity o Helsinki the nou) in 1822 an stairtit his vaiges for tae ingaither poems in 1827. He gaed oot on a tot o elieven field trips durin a period o fifteen year.

Balto-Finnic fowk poetry an sangs haes been aboot for mair nor twa thoosand year but wisna written doun till the 1670s, follaed bi a few ingaitherers athin the neist centuries. In the 19t century, ingaitherin became mair extensive an seestematic. Awthegithir, awmaist twa million verses wis ingaithert athin that time. O thir, aboot 1,250,000 haes been pitten furth an some 500,000 haesna been setten furth in the archives o the Finnish Literature Society an the collections in Estonie an the Republic o Karelie an ither pairts o Roushie. 
Lönnrot an his contemporars (e.g. A.J. Sjögren an D.E.D. Europaeus) ingaithert maist o the poem variants (ae poem micht hae up tae twa hunder variants) skailt ower aw the airts o Kaerlia an Ingria amang the landart fowk. Thay notit carefu the name o the sangster, his or her eild, the steid o the shawin an the date in thair records. Athin his fowert field trip in September 1833 Lönnrot got the thochtie that the poems micht weel represent a braider conteenous tradeetion whan poem entities wis performed tae him alang wi comments in ordinar speak connectin them.
The poetry wis for ordinar sung tae tuins biggit on a pentachord, whiles assistit bi the kantele. The rhythm coud chynge, but the tuins wis sortit in aither twa or fower lines, o whit ilkane haed five beats. Whiles the poems wis performed antiphonally, whiles thay war pairt o a sangshaw atween the bairds o the tradeetion. Mauger the muckle geographic distances an cultural spheres sinderin the indiveedual singers, the poetry wis aye sung in the same metre, sae cried archaic trochaic tetrameter. Its ither formal featurs is alleeteration, parallelism an inversion intil chiasmus.
The chronology o the oral tradeetion isna siccar kent. The seeminly auldest themes (the shapin o the yird) haes been interpret tae hae thair oreegin in distant pre-history while the seeminly latest events (e.g. the comin o Christianity) seems tae be frae the Airn Eild.

O the dizzens o poem singers that contributit tae Kalevala, signeeficant anes includes:

Lönnrot arranged the collectit poems intae a mair or less coherent hail. In daen sae he merged thegither poem variants an chairacters an left oot verses that dindna fit or wrate a puckle lines o his ain for tae connect certaint pairts intae a logical plot. He e'en inventit a few names that coud be uised for a chairacter in the hail story. It haes been estimate that Kalevala is made up o: ae third o wird for wird recordins bi the ingaitherers, 50% o material that Lönnrot adjustit a bittie, 14% o verses he wrate himsel based on poem variants an 3% o verses juist o his ain makkin. Whit can be thocht o as Lönnrot's maist important contreibution is the arreengment o the poems. In the preface tae Old Kalevala (Februar 1835), Lönnrot hielichts the possibility that awbody ither nor himsel coud wale different poems an varients an that Kalevala wad aye be as genuine as it wis on the day that it wis completit. As a maiter o fact, Lönnrot eikit some 3,000 verses o poem variants tae the end o Old Kalevala for ithers tae compear, but thir haes syne quat bein includit in the new edeetions o the epic.

The first version o Lönnrot's compilation wis cried Kalewala, taikka Wanhoja Karjalan Runoja Suomen Kansan muinoisista ajoista (that gaes ower intae Scots as Kalevala, or auld Karelian poems anent the bygane o the Finnish fowk), kent forby as Old Kalevala. It wis pitten oot in twa volums in 1835-6. Old Kalevala haed 12,078 verses or thirty-twa poems.
Lönnrot didna stap ingaitherin new material that he intigrate intae a seicont edeetion, Kalevala, pitten oot in 1849. This New Kalevala is the staundart text uised for ordinar the day.

Kalevala haes been translate intil fowerty-nine leids, but as yet no intae Scots. The maist common an braidly kent Ingles translation the day is bi the poet Keith Bosley (1998)

Makkin o the yird; the first man; the encoonter atween Väinämöinen an Joukahainen; Joukahainen haundfasts his sister tae Väinämöinen in exchynge for no bein killed; Aino (Joukahainen's sister) gaes intil the sea; Joukahainen's revengin; the woundit Väinämöinen fleets tae Pohjola (Northland); Väinämöinen meets the Maid o the North an hechts the Mistress o the North tae gie her the Sampo in exchynge for the haund o her dauchter; Väinämöinen swicks the smith Ilmarinen intae Pohjola whaur he maks the Sampo.
 

Lemminkäinen chores the maid Kyllikki o the Isle; thay mak a vou; she forleits her vou; Lemminkäinen gaes tae Pohjola for tae speir tae be haundfastit tae the Maid o the North; things Lemminkäinen maun dae for tae be haundfastit tae her; ski for the Ill Ane's elk, bridle the Ill Ane's horse an shuit the Swan o Tuonela (the laund o the deid); a herd kills Lemminkäinen an horse his corp intae the River o Tuonela; Lemminkäinen's mithir wauks him tae life.

Väinämöinen gaes tae Tuonela for tae meet Antero Vipunen for tae get spells for boat-biggin an sails tae Pohjola; Ilmarinen an Väinämöinen competes wi ilk ither for the haund o the Maid o the North.

Ilmarinen duis the things he needit for tae help o the Maid; pleuchin the veeper-field, lowin the wowfs o Tuonela an catchin the ged oot the River o Tuonela; the waddin o Ilmarinen an the Maid o the North; the story o the brewin o the ale.

Lemminkäinen is resentfou for no been invitit tae the waddin; he gaes tae Pohjola an wins the fecht wi the Maister o the Northland; an airmy is conjurt for tae get back at Lemminkäinen; at his mither's rede he flees tae the Isle o Refuge; returnin hame he sees that his hoose haes been burnt doun; he gaes tae Pohjola wi his fere Tiera for tae get revenge but the Mistress o the North freezes the seas an Lemminkäinen haes tae gae back hame.

Untamo kills aw his brither Kalevo's fowk except fer his guidwife wha begets Kullervo; Untamo gies Kullervo several tasks bot sabotages thame aw; Kullervo is sauld as a sclave tae Ilmarinen; efter bein tormentit bi Ilmarinen's guidwife, he taks revenge an the guidwife is killed; Kullervo runs awa an finnds his faimily unharmed near tae Lapland; Kullervo seduces a maiden an later finnds oot that she is his sister; Kullervo destroys Untamola (the kintra o Untamo) an upon returnin hame finnds ilka bodie killed; Kullervo kills himsel.

Ilmarinen maks fer himsel a guidwife oot o gowd an siller, bot finnds her tae be cauld an discards her; Ilmarinen then chores the sister o the Maid o the North frae Pohjola; she snashes him sae he discards her; Ilmarinen tells Väinämöinen o the carefree, guid life o the fowk o Pohjola acause o the Sampo.

Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen an Lemminkäinen sail fer tae get the Sampo; thay kill a muckle pike o whas jaw bane the first kantele is craftit; Väinämöinen lulls ilkane in the hall o Pohjola tae sleep wi his liltin an the Sampo is chored; the Mistress o the Norland conjures a muckle airmy, chynges hersel intae an eagle an fechts fer the Sampo; the Sampo faws intil the sea.

The Mistress o the North sends the fowk o Kaleva diseases an a bear fer tae kill thair kye; she hides the Sun an the Muin an chores fire frae Kaleva; Väinämöinen an Ilmarinen restore fire an Väinämöinen forces the Mistress tae gie bak the Sun an the Muin tae the lift.

Marjatta gets impregnatit frae a berry she ett an gies birth tae a son, whilk is an allusion tae Mary an Jesus (In the Finnish leid Maria means Mary an marja means berry) ; Väinämöinen orders the killin o the lad; the lad stairts tae speak an reproaches Väinämöinen fer ill walin; he is then baptised keeng o Karelia; Väinämöinen sails awa.

The main chairacter o Kalevala is Väinämöinen, a shamanlike hero wi the maigical pouer o sangs an muisic. He wis born o the gey auld Maiden o the Air an contributes tae the makkin o the yird. Monie o his travels resemble shamanlike journeys, maist notably the ane in whilk he veesits the belly o a grund-gyan, Antero Vipunen, tae finnd the wurds o boat generation. He plyes at the kantele, a stringed instrument frae Finland that lueks lik an is plyed lik a zither. Ane o his kanteles is made frae the jawbane o a muckle pike. His sairch fer a guidwife is a central pairt in monie stories; he finndsna ane, bot. Fer ane exemplar o the guidwifes, Joukahainen's sister Aino, droons hersel instead o marryin him. He an aa pairt o the group wha chore the Sampo frae the fowk o Pohjola.

Seppo Ilmarinen is a heroic artificer-smith (wha cuid be comparit tae the Germanic Weyland an mibie the Greek Daedalus an aw) wha craftit the Dome o the Lift, the Sampo an a wheen o ithir things forbye. Ilmarinen is an aa ane o the group wha chore the Sampo.

Louhi the Hag o the North, is a shamanlike mithir o a fowk rivillin thay o Kalevala wha at ane pynt in the epic pulls the Sun an the Muin frae the lift an chores the fire awa frae the fowk o Kalevala. She rules ower Pohjola alain efter Lemminkäinen haes killed her guidman, Maister o Pohjola. She haundfasts her dauchter tae Ilmarinen in exchynge fer him biggin the Sampo.

Joukahainen is Väinämöinen's yung rival, wha promises his sister Aino tae Väinämöinen efter he is defeatit in a liltin contest. Joukahainen tries tae gain his revenge on Väinämöinen bi killin him wi a crossbow. He succeedsna, bot whit he haes duin leads tae Väinämöinen promisin tae big the Sampo in exchynge fer Louhi rescuin him.

Sel-dingin, vengefou Kullervo wis borns as a sclave, sauld tae Ilmarinen an gien wark bi Ilmarinen's guidwife, wham he later kills. Kullervo is the ainlie truly tragic chairacter in Kalevala, wha cannae be redemit bi onything he daes. He aften gaes intae a berserk raige an in the end kills himsel. In monie wies he servit as the template fer JRR Tolkien's chairacter Túrin Turambar.

Bonnie bot arrogant, Lemminkäinen is the third member o the group whilk chores the Sampo frae the fowk o Pohjola. Efter he is murderit, his mithir haes tae rescue his corp frae the River o Deid whilk runs throu Tuonela an bring him bak tae life (whilk brings tae mynd the Egytian meeth o Osiris).

As a muckle pairt o Finnish cultur an historie the influence o Kalevala is gey skailed; frae leeterature tae metal muisic, frae fine airts tae film. Tae a lesser degree, the influence o Kalevala influence haes been notit in ithir culturs aroond the wurld..

Kalevala Day is celebratit in Finland on the 28t o Februar, whilk is hou Elias Lönnrot datit his first edeetion o Kalevala in 1835.
A tait o the names in Kalevala are celebrates as Finnish name days forbye, altho this haesna onie direck relation tae Kalevala itsel.

Mair nor a tait o airtists hae been influencit bi Kalevala, maist notablie Akseli Gallen-Kallela wha haes pentit monie warks relatin tae Kalevala.
Ane o the eirliest airtists tae depick a scene frae Kalevala is Robert Wilhelm Ekman. Ane drawin frae 1886 depicks Väinämöinen plyin at the kantele.
Aarno Karimo wis a Finnish airtist wha illustratit the bonnie Kuva Kalevala (1953). Wanachancelike he deid afore finishin it, bot Hugo Otava wis able tae complete it uisin oreeginal sketches as a guide.

Kalevala haesnae ainlie been translatit intae ower fowerty-nine leids bot haes been retauld in a wheen o leids an adaptit tae deefferent situations.
The maist weil kent exemplar o the influence o Kalevala on anithir scriever is maist likely wi JRR Tolkien. He aye thrieped that Kalevala wis ane o his soorces fer the scrievins whilk becam The Silmarillion. Fer exemplar, the story o Kullervo haes been uised extensively in The Silmarillion (includin the swaird that spak what the anti-hero uises it fer suicide) as the basis fer Túrin Turambar in Narn i Chîn Húrin (as a side note, the Finnish fer ee is silmä). Ithir echoes o Kalevala chaircarters, Väinämöinen in parteecular, ar an aa tae be funnd in the weezards o The Lord Of The Rings.

The German leid translation o the epic wis the gell fer Longfellow's 1855 poem, The Song of Hiawatha whilk is scrieved in the same metre an an aa inspirit the Inglis sci-fi scriever tae scrieve The Books of Mana, Lucky's Harvest an The Fallen Moon.

It is aften thrieped that the naitonal epic o Estonia, cryed Kalevipoeg (pit thegithir an scrieven bi Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, first pittin oot in 1853) wis sumwhit tiftit bi Kalevala, mainly acause baith Väinämöinen an Ilmarinen are mentionit in the poem an the oweraw story o Kalevipoeg (Kalev's son) haes sum muckle seemilaties wi the Kullervo story.

Muisic is lik as no the airt whilk haes taen the maist influence frae Kalavala, whilk is wycelike syne the poems wer performit muisically bi fowk lilters. Because o fowk muisic historie o Kalevala thare hae been a tait fowk muisic albums an collections baised on or threipin tift frae Kalevala.

Lik as no the maist famous Kalevala inspired muisc is that o the classical composer Jean Sibelius. Twal o his best kent warks ar baised on an influenced bi Kalevala, maist notably his Kullervo Symphony. Thare is an aa thrie operas baised on Kalevala (Sammon ryöstö, Marjatta an Thomas) composit bi Einojuhani Rautavaara.

Classic muisic, howeever isnae the ainlie aurie o influence. The wis a Finnish ogressive rock baund cryed Kalevala in the 1970s, wha pit ott thrie albums.

The Finnish metal baund Amorphis hae baised several concept albums on Kalevala uisin the first translation fer the leerics, an ar weil kent fer uisin Kalevala as a soorce o tift fer thair ain leerics forbye. Thair albums maist obvious o thair albums whilk ar influecit bi Kalevala ar Tales From The Thousand Lakes, Elegy an Eclipse. Fowk metal baund Ensiferum ar amang a wheen o fowk metal baunds wha hae baised sum o thair wark on Kalevala, sic as thair sangs Old Man an Little Dreamer whilk ar anent Väinämöinen.

In 2003, the Finnish progresive rock magazine Colossus an Musea Records frae Fraunce incencit 30 prog-rock baunds frae aw ower the warld tae scrieve muisical pieces baised on gien pairts o Kalevala. The risult wis a thrie-disc, multileid, fower oor epic o the same name, an is aften thocht o as ane o the maist ambeetious muisical projecks o aw tyme.

In 1959 a jynt Finnish/Soviet production cryed Sampo (kent forbye as The Day the Eart Froze) wis pit oot, whilk tuek its gell frae the story o the Sampo frae Kalevala.

The martial airts film Jadesoturi (kent forbye as Jade Warrior) is baised on Kalevala an set in Finland an China.

A wheen o interpritations fer the themes in Kalevala hae been pittin forart. Sum parit o the epic hae been seen as antient fechts atween the Finnics an the Samis. In this context, the kintra Kalevala cuid be unnerstuid as Southron Finland an Pohjola as Lapland. Houever, the names o steids in Kalevala seem tae pit the kintra o Kalevala furder South, whilk haes been interpritit as refelctin the Finnic reddin o the South whilk puished the Samis furder tae the North. Sum beukmen pit the kintra o Kalevala in Eist Karelia, whaur maist o the Kalevala stories war scrieven doun.

Those wha support the theory o a Southron Kalevala thriep that the name Kalevala wis first recordit in an atlas o al Idrisi in the year 1154, whaur a clachan cryed qlwny (or mibie tlwny) is recordit. This is maist likely tae be presint day Tallinn, caipital o Estonie, kent in auld Eist Slavic soorces as Kolyvan. The Finnish wurd Kalevan (o Kaleva) haes almaist the same meanin as Kalevala. The Saari (lit. The Isle) micht be the isle o Saaremaa in Estonia, while the fowk o Väinölä micht hae sum resemblin wi the Livonian clan o Veinalensis in presint day Latvie, menshinit in the 13t century chronicle connectit tae Henry o Livonia. Antient Finns, Estonies an Latvies speaks seemilar Finnic byleids an ar jaloused tae share a common ancestry.

Houever, Matti Kuusi an Pertti Anttonen thriep in thair bueuk Kalevala Lipas (1985) that sic terms as the fowk o Kalevala or the clan o Kalevala ar purely the makkin o Elias Lönnrot. Forbye, thay pynt oot that the wurd Kalevala is gey rare in tradeetional poetry an that bi pittin emphasis on dualism (i.e. Kalevala agin Pohjola) Elias Lönnrot creatit the tension needit fer makkin Kalevala dramatically successfu an sae fit fer a naitional epic.




#Article 320: Afrikaans leid (293 words)


Afrikaans is a Wast Germanic leid, mainly spoken in Sooth Africae and Namibie. It is a dochter leid o Dutch, oreeginatin in its 17t century dialects, collectively referred tae as Cape Dutch.Afrikaans wis historically cawed Cape Dutch; see , , , , , .
Afrikaans is rootit in seiventeent century dialects o Dutch; see , , , .
Afrikaans is variously described as a creole, a partially creolised leid, or a different variety o Dutch; see . Awtho Afrikaans borraed frae leids sic as Malay, Portuguese, the Bantu leids or the Khoisan leids, an estimatit 90 tae 95 percent o Afrikaans vocabulary is o Dutch origin.

Wi aboot 6 million native speakers in Sooth Africae, or 13.3 percent o the population, it is the third maist spoken mither tongue in the kintra. It haes the widest geographical an racial distribution o aw offeecial leids, an is widely spoken an unnerstood as a seicont or third leid. It is the majority leid o the wastren hauf o Sooth Africae—the provinces o the Northren Cape an Wastren Cape—an the primary leid o the coloured an white communities.For the geographical distribution o Afrikaans; see an aa Afrikaans speakin population in Sooth Africae. In neebourin Namibie, Afrikaans is spoken in 11 percent o hoosehaulds, mainly concentratit in the caipital Windhoek an the soothren regions o Hardap an Karas. Widely spoken as a seicont leid, it is a lingua franca o Namibie. 

While the tot nummer o speakers o Afrikaans is unkent, estimates range atween 17.5 an 23 million.

In the grammar o Afrikaans, thare's nae sindry atween the infinitive an praisent forms o verbs, wi the exception o the verbs 'to be' and 'to have':

An aw, verbs dinna conjugate differently depending on the subject. For ensaumple,




#Article 321: Homosexuality (354 words)


The wird homosexuality haes been uised tae mean mony different things ower the coorse o history. Ilka uiss o the wird is relatit tae the state o bein smitten wi fowk o the same sex or gender. It haes been uised tae mean thochts or actions in the airt o the same sex or gender regairdin ane or mair o: aesthetic attraction, sexual attraction or luve. The relatit wird homosexual means either a bodie that practises homosexuality or pertainin tae homosexuality.  Mind that homosexuality is contrastit tae heterosexuality, or straightness.

The wird homosexual is nou maistly thocht tae be auld-farrant, an mony prefer tae be cried gay or lesbian. Gay, bisexual, an transgender fowk are kent thegether bi the initialism LGBT (lesbian, gay, bi an trans). Maist o the time, gay refers tae male homosexuality, but forby thon it can mean baith male an female homosexuality. A mair common wey o referrin tae a female homosexual is tae cry her a lesbian.

Homosexuality haes been documentit in human society for thoosands o years. The Auncient Greeks, fir ensample, wis kent tae hae haed a wey o institutionalised homosexuality cried pederasty. Aulder men uised tae be expectit tae tak a young lad an shaw him the weys o Greek society. Pairt o this gey close relationship atween a lad an a mentor teuk the form o sexual intimacy. A gey wheen o Greek piggie depictit sic relationships. It shoud be notit, thou, that this parteecular form o male-male relationship wad be conseedert paedophilia, an syne unlawfu, in maist culturs nouadays. The Christian warld in the Middle-Age hae aye been considererin homosexuality like a crime an gay fowk were executed.

Nou, homosexuality is punished bi caipital puinishment in a few kintras, maist integrist Muslim anes, like Sudan, Iran an Saudi Arabie.

See an aw: LGBT richts muivment

Lesbianism haes aye been lawfu in Scotland, or raither, it wis niver made unlawfu. On the ither haund, sex atween twa or mair men wis unlawfu in Scotland till 1980.

Nou Glesga, Embro, Dundee an Aiberdeen aa hae a veesible gay scene, an homosexuality is tholed bi maist fowk.




#Article 322: Hinduism (139 words)


Hinduism is a releegion or frae the Indie Subcontinent. It's mey be the auldest releegion in the warld. It's foondit on the fower beuks cried the Vedas, an a puckle mair beuks forby.

The name Hinduism refers tae mony unlik schuils o thocht an mony unalike rituals an practices. Hinduism haes mebbes 900 million follaers. Maist o thaim bides in Indie.

Forby Hindus dinna gree on awthing, mony beliefs is shared, sic as a belief in Dharma (ethics, tasks, things ye maun dae), Samsāra (Reincarnation), Karma (cause an effect) an Moksha (salvation) for ilka saul bi the practice o Bhakti (devotional service), Karma (selfless action) an Jñāna (enlichtenment, knawledge), Raja (meditation) an o coorse, belief in God (Īshvara).

Hinduism's a polytheistic releegion, an Hindus believes there's millions o gods. The three maist important yins is Shiva, Vishnu an Brahma.




#Article 323: Australie (1309 words)


Australie, offeecially the Commonweel o Australie, is a kintra situatit in the Soothren Hemisphere conseestin o the mainland o the Australien continent (the weest in the warld), the island o Tasmanie an puckle smawer islands in the Indian an Paceefic Oceans. Neebourin kintras include Indonesie, East Timor an Papua New Guinea til the north, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu an New Caledonia til the northeast an New Zealand til the sootheast.

Fer at least 40,000 year afore European dounset in the late 18t century, Australie wis wonet bi indigenous Australians. Australie's eastren hauf wis claimit bi Breetain in 1770 an ti stairt wi settelt throu penal transportation til the colony o New Sooth Wales, foondit on 26 Januar 1788. The indwallers nummer grew conseestently in thae follaein years; the continent wis explorit an an eik o five, maistly self-govrenin Croun Colonies war estaiblishit in the 19t century.

On 1 Januar 1901, the sax colonies becam a federation an the Commonweel o Australie wis creatit. Syne Federation, Australie haes keepit a siccar liberal democratic poleetical seestem an is a Commonweel kinrick. The nummer o indwellers is 22 million, wi aboot 60% in an aroond the mainland state caipitals o Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth an Adelaide. The naition's caipital ceety is Canberra, locatit in the Australian Caipital Territory.

Namit  in Australian Inglis, comes frae the Laitin australis, meanin soothren. The kintra hae been cried Oz syne the early 20t century. Aussie is a name times uised ti refer ti the Australien fowk.

Leegends o an unbekent land o the sooth (terra australis incognita) hae been aroond syne the Roman times an wis aft seen in medieval cairts, but thae warnae o ony bekent continent. The wird Australie wis first uissit in Inglis in 1625, in A note o Australia del Espíritu Santo, scrieved bi Master Hakluyt an published bi Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus. The Duits adjecteeval form Australische wis ussit bi Dutch East Indie Company offeecials in Batavia ti refer ti the newlins discovered land til the sooth in 1638. Australie wis uised in a 1693 translation o Les Aventures de Jacques Sadeur dans la Découverte et le Voyage de la Terre Australe, a 1676 French beuk bi Gabriel de Foigny, unner the eik-name Jacques Sadeur. Alexander Dalrymple uissit hit in An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean (1771), whan refferin til the hail Sooth Paceefic region. In 1793, George Shaw an Sir James Smith scrieved Zoology and Botany of New Holland, an spake o the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia, Australasia or New Holland.

The name Australie wis popularised bi Matthew Flinders, wham pushit for the name ti be formally uissit as early as 1804. Whan reddin his manuscript an chairts for his 1814 A Voyage to Terra Australis, he wis persuaded bi his patron, Sir Joseph Banks, ti uiss the name Terra Australis as hit wis the name maist kent til the fowk. Flinders did sae, but forbye includit the fuitnote:  Hit wis the ae time in the beuk; but in Appendix III, Robert Brown's General remarks, geographical and systematical, on the botany of Terra Australis, Brown maks uiss o the adjectival form Australian throu the hail airticle, en is the first kent uiss o hit. Lachlan Macquarie, a Govrenor o New Sooth Wales, uissit the wird in his dispatches til Ingland, an on 12 December 1817 recommendit til the Colonial Office tha it be formally adoptit. In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent shoud be kent offeecially as Australie.

Indwellen o Australie is estimatit ti hae stairt atween 42,000 an 48,000 year aby, mibbe wi the migration o fowk bi land brigs an short sea-crossins frae whit is nou Sootheast Asie. Thae fowk mey hae been sib til modren Indigenous Australians. At the time of European dounset in the late 18t century, maist Indigenous Australians war hunter-gaithrers, wi a complex oral cultur an spiritual values basit on unnersaundin o the land an a belief in the Dreamtime. The Torres Kyle Islanders, sib til the Melanesien fowk, war oreeginally horticulturalists an hunter-gaithrers.

The first screived European sichtin o the Australien continent an the first screived European landin on the Australian continent war bi the Dutchman Willem Janszoon, wham sichtit the coast o Cape York Hauf-Island on an unkent day in early 1606; he landit on 26 Februar at the Pennefather River on the wastren shore o Cape York, near the modren toun o Weipa. The Dutch chairtit the hail o the wastren an northren coasts o New Holland in the 17t century. William Dampier, an Inglish explorer/privateer landit on the northwast coast o Australie in 1688 an oweragain in 1699. In 1770, James Cook sailed alang an chairtit the east coast o Australie, an cried hit New Sooth Wales an claimit hit for Great Breetain. Hit wis Cook's wark tha prepared the wey for establishment o a new penal colony. The Breetish Croun Colony o New Sooth Wales wis foondit on 26 Januar 1788, whan Captain Arthur Phillip led the First Fleet til Port Jackson. This date wis ti becam Australie's naitional day, Australie Day. Van Diemen's Land, kent nou as Tasmanie, wis settlt in 1803 an becam a separate colony in 1825. The Unitit Kinrick formally claimit the wastren pairt o Australie in 1828.

Ither colonies war pairtit frae New Sooth Wales: Sooth Australie in 1836, Victoria in 1851, an Queensland in 1859. The Northren Territory wis foondit in 1911 whan hit wis takken frae Sooth Australie. Sooth Australie wis foondit as a free province—it wis neer uissit as a penal colony. Victoria an Wastren Australie war an aa foondit free, but later alloud convicts. A campaign bi the indwellers o New Sooth Wales led ti the end o convict transportation til tha colony; the last convict ship wis in 1848.

The indigenous fowk, estimatit ti be 350,000 at the time o European dounset, dwyned steeply for 150 year thare efter, maistly ti infectious illness. The Stealt Generations (the takin o Aboriginal childer frae thair kin) cud hae contributit ti the decline in the Indigenous fowk an aa. Sic interpretations o Aboriginal history arnae supportit bi conservative commentators an sic lik. The Federal govrenment gained the pouer ti mak laws for Aborigines ahint the 1967 referendum. Tradeetional awnership o land—native title—wisna recognised till 1992, whan the Hie Court case Mabo v Queensland (No 2) owerturned the conceit o Australie as terra nullius (land belongin til naebody) afore European occupation.

Breetain's Statute o Westminster 1931 endit maist o the constitutional links atween Australie an the UK. Australie adoptit hit in 1942. The shock o the UK's defeat in Asie in 1942 an the threit o Japanese invasion gart Australie ti turn til the Unitit States as a new fere an protector. Syne 1951, Australie haes been a formal military fere o the US, unner the ANZUS treaty. Ahint World War II, Australie increasit immigration frae Europe. Syne the 1970s an efter the abolition o the White Australie policy, immigration frae Asie an ither kintras wis promotit an aa. The eftercast o this wis tha Australie's demography, cultur, an sel-perception wis changit. The final constitutional ties atween Australie an the UK wis sned wi the passin o the Australie Act 1986, endin ony Breetish role in the govrenment o Australie, an closin the chaunce o appealin til the Privy Council in Lunnon. In a referendum, 55% o Australian voters an a feck in ivery Australien state didnae want a republic wi a preses appointit bi a twa-thrids vote in baith Hooses o the Australien Pairliament. Syne the election o the Whitlam Govrenment in 1972, foreign policy hae stairtit ti mak stranger ties wi ilke Paceefic Rim naitions, while keepin close ties wi Australie's tradeetional feres an tradin pairtners

The kintra o Australie is pairtit atween sax states an twa territories, leetit ablo:




#Article 324: Sydney (148 words)


Sydney is the lairgest an maist populous ceety in Australie an the state caipital o New Sooth Wales. Sydney is locatit on Australie's sooth-east coast o the Tasman Sea. Inhabitants o Sydney are cried Sydneysiders, comprisin a cosmopolitan an internaitional population o fowk frae numerous places aroond the warld.

The steid o the first Breetish colony in Australie, Sydney wis established in 1788 at Sydney Cove bi Arthur Phillip, commodore o the First Fleet as a penal colony. The ceety is biggit on hills surroondin Port Jackson which is commonly kent as Sydney Harbour, whaur the iconic Sydney Opera Hoose an the Harbour Bridge featur prominently. The hinterland o the metropolitan aurie is surroondit bi naitional pairks, an the coastal regions feature mony bays, rivers, inlets an beaches includin the famous Bondi Beach. Athin the ceety are mony notable pairks, includin Hyde Park an the Royal Botanic Gardens.




#Article 325: Odessa (2100 words)


Odessa or Odesa (, ), (), is the third lairgest ceety in Ukraine, wi a population o 1,003,705. At the beginnin o the 20t century it wis the biggest ceety o Ukraine an haed a special unthirlt jurisdiction. The ceety is a major seaport an transportation hub locatit on the northwastren shore o the Black Sea. Odessa is an aa an admeenistrative centre o the Odessa Oblast an major cultural centre o multi-ethnic population. Its alternative Roushie name is the Soothren Palmira.

The predecessor o Odessa, a smaa Tatar dounset, wis foondit bi Hacı I Giray, the Khan o Crimea in 1440. Efter a period o Lithuanie control, it passed intae the domain o the Ottoman Sultan in 1529 an remained in Ottoman haunds till the Ottoman Empire's defeat in the Russo-Turkis War o 1792. The ceety o Odessa wis foondit bi a decree o the Empress Catherine the Great in 1794. Frae 1819 tae 1858 Odessa wis a free port. Durin the Soviet period it wis the maist important port o tred in the Soviet Union an a Soviet naval base. On 1 Januar 2000 the Quarantine Pier o Odessa tred sea port wis declared a free port an free economic zone for a term o 25 years.

In the 19t century it wis the fowert lairgest ceety o Imperial Roushie, efter Moscow, Saunt Petersburg an Warsaw. Its historical airchitectur haes a style mair Mediterranean nor Roushie, haein been hivily influencit bi French an Italian styles. Some biggins are biggit in a mixtur o different styles, includin Art Nouveau, Renaissance an Clessicist.

Odessa is a wairm watter port. The ceety o Odessa hosts twa important ports: Port o Odessa itsel an Port Yuzhne (an aa an internaitionally important ile terminal), situatit in the ceety's suburbs. Anither important port, Illichivsk, is locatit in the same oblast, tae the sooth-wast o Odessa. Thegither thay represent a major transport hub integratin wi railways. Odessa's ile an chemical processin facilities are connectit tae Roushie's an EU's respective networks bi strategic pipelines.

The oreegin o the name Odessa is unkent, but it is proponit the ceety wis namit efter the auncient Greek ceety o  (Oδησσός), which wis falsely believit tae hae been foondit at the location o present day Odessa; awtho Odessa is in fact locatit in the aurie atween the auncient Greek ceeties o Tyras (Τύρας) an Olbia (Ὀλβία).

In the AD 15t century, nomadic tribes o the Nogays unner the suzerainty o the Khanate o Crimea inhabitit what is nou the Odessa region. Durin the reign o Khan Haci I Giray, the Khanate wis endangered bi the Golden Horde an the Ottoman Turks an, in sairch o allies, the khan agreed tae cede the aurie tae the Grand Duchy o Lithuanie.

The site o present-day Odessa wis then a toun kent as Khadjibey (an aa spelled as Khadjibei, Khadzhibei, or Gadzhibei; Lithuanian: Chadžibėjus; Crimean Tatar an Turkish: Hacibey) an wis pairt o the Dykra region. Houever, the aurie wis ae sparsely populated wi Turkic tribes an consistit maistly o unpopulatit steppes.

Khadjibey came unner direct control o the Ottoman Empire efter 1529 an wis pairt o a region kent as Yedisan an wis administered in the Ottoman Silistra (Özi) Province. In the mid-18t century, the Ottomans rebuilt a fortress at Khadjibey, which wis named Eni Dunia (Turkish: Yeni Dünya, literally new warld).

Durin the Russo-Turkish War o 1787–1792, on 25 September 1789, a detachment o Roushie forces unner Ivan Gudovich teuk Khadjibey an Yeni Dünya for the Roushie Empire. Ane pairt o the troops wis unner command o a Spaniard in Roushie service, Major General José de Ribas (kent in Roushie as Osip Mikhailovich Deribas) an the main street in Odessa the day, Deribasovskaya street, is named efter him. Roushie formally gained possession o the aurie as a result o the Treaty o Jassy (Iaşi) in 1792 an it became a pairt o the sae-cawed Novorossiya (New Roushie).

A ceety wis offeecially foondit in 1794 as a Roushie naval fortress on the ruins o Khadjibey an wis renamed Odessa bi Januar 1795 (when its new name wis first mentioned in offeecial correspondence). Neither origin o the new name nor reasons for renamin ar kent, tho etymologies an anecdotes aboond. Accordin tae ane o the stories, when someane suggestit Odessos as a name for the new Roushie port, Catherine II said that aw names in the Sooth o the Empire wur already 'masculine,' an didna want yet anither ane, sae she decidit tae chynge it tae mair 'feminine' Odessa. This anecdote is hichtlie dubious, acause thare wur at least twa ceeties (Eupatoria an Theodosia) which names soond 'feminine' for a Roushie; besides, the Czarina wis no a native Roushie speaker, an finally, aw ceeties ar feminine in Greek (as well as in Latin). Anither legend derives the name 'Odessa' frae the wird-play: in French (which wis then the leid spoken at the Roushie court), 'plenty o watter' is assez d'eau; if said backwards, it soonds seemilar tae that o the Greek colony's name (an watter-relatit pun maks perfect sense, acause Odessa, tho situatit next tae the huge body o watter, haes limitit fresh watter supply). Onyhou, a link wi the name o the ancient Greek colony persists, sae thare might be some truth in the oral tradeetion.

The new ceety quickly became a major success. Its early growthe owed muckle tae the wirk o the Duc de Richelieu, who served as the ceety's governor atween 1803–1814. Haein fled the French Revolution, he haed served in Catherine's airmy against the Turks. He is creditit wit designin the ceety an organisin its amenities an infrastructure, an is considered ane o the foondin faithers o Odessa, thegither wi anither Frenchman, Coont Alexandre Langeron, who succeedit him in office. Richelieu is commemoratit bi a bronze statue, unveiled in 1828 tae a design bi Ivan Martos.

In 1819 the ceety wis made a free port, a status it retained till 1859. It became hame tae an extremely diverse population o Roushies, Ukrainians, Jews, Greeks, Bulgarians, Albanians, Armenians, Italians, Frenchmen, Germans an traders representin mony ither European naitionalities (hence numerous 'ethnic' names on the ceety's cairt, e.g., Frantsuszkiy (French) an Italianskiy (Italian) Boulevards, Grecheskaya (Greek), Evreyskaya (Jewish), Arnautskaya (Albanian) Streets). Its cosmopolitan naitur wis documented bi the great Roushie poet Alexander Pushkin, who lived in internal exile in Odessa atween 1823–1824. In his letters he wrote that Odessa wis a ceety whaur ye can smell Europe. French is spoken an there ar European papers an magazines tae read.

Odessa's growthe wis interrupted bi the Crimean War o 1853–1856, durin which it wis bombardit bi Breetish an French naval forces. It suin recovered an the growthe in tred made Odessa Roushie's lairgest grain-exportin port. In 1866 the ceety wis linked bi rail wi Kiev an Kharkov as well as Iaşi, Romanie. 

The ceety became the hame o a lairge Jewish community durin the 19t century, an bi 1897 Jews wur estimatit tae comprise some 37% o the population. Thay wur, houever, repeatedly subjectit tae severe persecution. Pogroms wur carried oot in 1821, 1859, 1871, 1881, an 1905. Mony Odessan Jews fled abroad, parteecularly tae Palestine efter 1882, an the ceety became an important base o support for Zionism.

In 1905 Odessa wis the site o a workers' uprisin supportit bi the crew o the Roushie battleship Potemkin (an aa see Battleship Potemkin uprising) an Lenin's Iskra. Sergei Eisenstein's famous motion picture The Battleship Potemkin commemoratit the uprisin an includit a scene whaur hunders o Odessan ceetizens wur murdered on the great stane staircase (nou popularly kent as the Potemkin Steps), in ane o the maist famous scenes in motion picture history. At the tap o the steps, which lead doun tae the port, stands a statue o Richelieu. The actual massacre teuk place in streets nearbi, no on the steps themselves, but the movie caused mony tae veesit Odessa tae see the steid o the slauchter. The Odessa Steps continue tae be a tourist attraction in Odessa. The film wis made at Odessa's Cinema Factory, ane o the auldest cinema studios in the umwhile Soviet Union.

Follaein the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 durin Warld War I, Odessa wis occupied bi several groups, includin the Ukrainian Tsentral'na Rada, the French Airmy, the Reid Airmy an the White Airmy. Finally, in 1920, the Reid Airmy teuk control o Odessa an unitit it wi the Ukrainian SSR, which later acame pairt o the USSR.

The fowk o Odessa suffered frae a great faimin that occurred in 1921–1922 as a result o the war. Durin Warld War II Odessa wis occupied bi Romanie an German forces frae 1941–1944. The ceety suffered severe damage an mony casualties.

Unner the Axis occupation, approximately 60,000 Odessans (maistly Jews) wur aither massacred or deportit. Mony pairts o Odessa wur damaged durin its faw an later recaptur in Aprile 1944, when the ceety wis finally liberatit bi the Soviet Army. It wis ane o the first fower Soviet ceeties tae be awardit the title o Hero Ceety in 1945.

During the 1960s an 1970s the ceety grew tremendously. Nivertheless, atween the 1970s an 1990s, the majority o Odessa's Jews emigratit tae Israel, the Unitit States an ither Wastren kintras, domestic migration o Odessan middle an upper classes tae Moscow an Leningrad affered even greater opportunities for career advancement, an aa occurred on a lairge scale. But the ceety's grew rapidly bi filling the void wi new rural migrants elsewhere frae the Ukraine, industrial professionals invitit frae Roushie as well as ither Soviet republics. Despite bein pairt o the Ukraine Socialist Republic, the ceety preserved an somewhit reinforced its unique cosmopolitan mix o Roushie/Ukrainian/Mediterranean cultur an a predominantly Russophone environment wi a uniquely accented dialect o Roushie spoken in the ceety. The ceety's Roushie, Ukrainian, Greek, Armenie, Moldovan an Azeri an Jewish communities hae influenced different aspects o Odessa.

In 1991, efter the collapse o Communism, the ceety became pairt o newly independent Ukraine. The day Odessa is a ceety o aroond 1.1 million fowk. The ceety's industries include shipbiggin, ile refinin, chemicals, metalworkin an fuid processin. Odessa is an aa a Ukrainian naval base an hame tae a fishin fleet. It is an aa kent for its huge ootdoor mercat, the Seivent-Kilometer Mercat.

The transportation network o Odessa consists o trams (streetcaurs), trolleybuses, buses; an marshrutkas.

Odessa is situatit () on terraced hills owerleukin a smaa harbor, approximately 31 km (19 mi.) north o the estuary o the Dniester river an some 443 km (275 mi) sooth o the Ukrainian caipital Kiev. The ceety haes a mild an dry climate wi average temperaturs in Januar o -2 °C (29 °F), an Julie o 22 °C (73 °F). It averages anly 350 mm (14 in) o precipitation annually.

The primary leid spoken is Roushie, wi Ukrainian bein less common despite its bein an offeecial leid in Ukraine. The ceety is a mix o mony nationalities an ethnic groups, includin Ukrainians, Roushies, Jews, Greeks, Moldovans, Bulgaries, Armenies, Georgians, Turks, an Vietnamese, amang ithers.

Odessa is a popular tourist destination, wi mony therapeutic resorts in and aroond the ceety.

The Tolstoy, Vorontsov, an Potocki families awned pailaces in Odessa, which can still be visitit.

The writer Isaac Babel wis born in the ceety, which haes an aa produced several famous muisicians, includin the violinists Nathan Milstein, Mischa Elman an David Oistrakh, an the pianists Benno Moiseiwitsch, Sviatoslav Richter an Emil Gilels. The chess player Efim Geller wis born in the ceety. (Aw leetit, except for Richter, ar representatives o the ceety's Jewish community.)

The maist popular Roushie shaw-business fowk frae Odessa ar Yakov Smirnoff (comedian), Mikhail Zhvanetsky (legendary humorist writer, who began his career as port ingineer) an Roman Kartsev (comedian). Thair success in 1970s contributit tae Odessa's established status o a caipital o Soviet humour. Later several humour festivals wur established in the ceety, includin the celebration o the Aprile Fool's Day.

See mair fowk born in Odessa in .

Maist o the ceety's 19t century hooses wur biggit o limestane mined nearbi. Abandoned mines wur later uised an broadened bi local smugglers. This creatit a complicatit labyrinth o unnergrund tunnels aneath Odessa, kent as catacombs. Thay ar a nou a great attraction for extreme tourists. Sic tours, houever, ar no offeecially sanctioned an ar dangerous acause the layoot o the catacombs haes no been fully mapped an the tunnels themselves ar unsafe. Thir tunnels ar a primary reason why subway wis niver biggit in Odessa.

Odessa is twinned, haes sister an pairtner relationships wi mony ither ceeties throughoot the Warld:




#Article 326: Pro12 (860 words)


The Pro12, umwhile the Celtic League, stairtit in 1999 an nou kent as the Magners League, is a rugby union competeetion wi teams fae the three Celtic kintras: Scotland, Ireland an Wales.

In 1999, the Welsh Premiership wis expandit tae include Glesca an Embro, an wis cried the Welsh-Scottish League

In 2001, a complouter wis makkit wi the Irish, Scots an Welsh Unions for tae mak a new competeetion tae include the fower Irish stewartries.

The foremaist saison wad see fifteen teams compete:

The fower Irish stewartries (Connacht, Leinster, Munster an Ulster), twa Scots teams (Edinburgh Reivers an Glesgae) an aw nine Welsh Premier Diveesion teams (Bridgend, Caerphilly, Cardiff, Ebbw Vale, Llanelli, Neath, Newport, Pontypridd an Swansea).

Playin in ilka kintra's ain competeetions, the teams wis splitten intae twa groups (o 8 an 7) an played a series o gemmes wi ilk team playin agin the ither juist the ae time. The tap fower teams fae ilka group gaed intae the gird-oot phase or a champion wis fand. Clashes aqueesh teams in the Welsh-Scottish League coontit tae the new competeetion an aw.

The 2001/2002 competeetion wis dominatit bi the Irish teams wi aw fower teams gettin tae the hindermaist aicht, three makkin it tae the hintermaist fower, an the thrillin feenal played at Lansdowne Road contestit aqueesh Leinster an Munster wi the Dublin team beerin the gree 24-20.

The demaunds o the Celtic league led tae the Scots / Welsh league bein scrappit in 2002. The Irish cross-proveencial championship wis doungradit an aw.

The seicont (2002/03) saison's format wis identical except athoot the addeetion o a third Scots team, the newlins re-estaiblisht Scottish Mairches.

A gey muckle cheenge in Celtic League philosophy comen throu the early pairt o 2003, pairtly acause o the commercial seil o the league itsel but maistly acause o the Welsh Regional Rugby's financial constraints that left Wales wi but five bungfu professional coars. It wis decidit that the Celtic League wad acome the ae professional league o the three countries, wi aw fower Irish, three Scottish an the five nou Welsh (Cardiff Blues, Celtic Warriors, Llanelli Scarlets, Neath-Swansea Ospreys an Newport Gwent Dragons)coars.

Reformatted intae a traditional league competeetion (roond-robin wey, aw coars daff ilk ither twice, ance hame, ance awa), whilk ettled that a saison lang 22-roond daff program wis launchit, an wi a new virr in deepth acause o the amalgamation o Welsh coars an the continuing virrin o Irish an Scottish coars yont the re-signing an retention o muckle daffers, the league haes been in rugby terms a sonse. Introduced an aw for the 2003/04 saison wis the Celtic Quaich, a straucht gird-oot taffie competeetion aqueen the 12 Celtic League coars.

Naither the coorse timin o the league's launch an wickit organisation o a wirkin calendar meant that foremaist the 2003 Rugby Warld Cup an efter the RBS Sax Nations Championship preventit mony o the league's tap stars fae daffin in ower hauf the gemmes. This meant that commercially the league haes struggled, especially regarding the newlins-adoptit regions in Wales whaur the gemme haes ayeweys tradeetionally been daffit on a club basis, no haein the regional histories o Ireland or Scotland.

The league format wis further refined at the droddum o the 2003/04 saison, wi the participants decidin tae better manage the dates o the gemmes sae as no tae misguggle wi the naitional squad set-ups an tae mak the league mair commercially viable. The league wis daffit tae Apryle an then the Celtic Cup competeetion wis contested amongst the tap eicht coars o the league.

The Welsh Union then liquidated the Celtic Warriors region, lowdenin the coont o coars tae elieven.

In 2005, thare wis tatter ower an Anglo-Welsh cup competeetion whit some saw as undermining the Celtic League. Mauger Welsh assurances that the Anglo-Welsh tournament widnae interfere wi thair commitments tae aither the Celtic League in its present format or an expanded 'Rainbow League', the SRU an IRFU cited the fact that the WRU haed shappit arrangements tae play gemmes on five weekends wioot regaird tae Celtic League fixtures. Welsh sides waur flung oot o the Celtic League in Juin 2005, but readmitted,

Mauger yon quirks, the league enjoyed its maist successfu saison, wi the tap rangle at a Celtic League match bein brucken fower tids fae 12,436 at the Cardiff Blues Vs. Newport Gwent Dragons gemme in Dizember tae 15,327 for the Cardiff Blues Vs. Leinster match at the Millennium Stadium. The hail rangles for the saison war up naurhaund 50,000 at 571,331 abeis 521,449 for the foregane saison.

The league gaed doon tae the last roond wi Ulster an Leinster baith in contention. Efter Leinster's victory ower Embro an wi Ulster tynein agin the Ospreys, it lookit lik the cup wad gang tae Dublin but David Humphreys kickit a hintmaist meenit 40 metre drap dool tae limp the gemme an the league for Ulster.

Maist pynts rit bi a daffer in ane saison: 276 (Felipe Contepomi,Leinster, 2005-2006) 
Maist tries rit bi a daffer in ane saison: 12 (Jamie Robinson,Cardiff Blues,2003-2004  Kevin Morgan,Newport Gwent Dragons,2004-2005)
Heichmaist Clamjamfrie at Celtic League match: 15,327 (Cardiff Blues Vs. Leinster, 14t Mey 2006)




#Article 327: Glasgow Warriors (264 words)


The Glesca Warriors, ance Glesca Rugby, is ane o three professional rugby union coars in Scotland, the Embro Gunners and Mairch Reivers bein the ither twa. Tae Dizember 2005, the Warriors daffit at Hughenden (capacity 5,500), but thay hae syne flittit tae Firhill Stadium, hame o Partick Thistle Fitbaw Club. For Saison 2006/2007 thay are ance agin retournin tae Hughenden.

Glesca Rugby war makkit for tae daff in the Heineken Cup as the SRU didnae think that Scottish club coars coud pingle agin the best coars from Fraunce and England. Glesca, howsomeiver, didnae pingle in the Heineken Cup tae the 1997-98 saison.

Acause o the SRU's hie debt, acause o the redevelopment o Murrayfield cawed for retrenchment. Efter twa saisons, Glesca mellt wit Caledonian tae mak a coar tae be kent as Glesca Caledonian. Fae the 2002-03 saison the Caledonian label wis drapped an the coar were semply kent as Glesca Rugby. Stairtin wi the 2005-06 saison, the coar wis yit agin rebranded as the Glesca Warriors.

Glesca reached the semi-finals o the inaugural Celtic League but hae struggled syne. In 2004-5 thay wur fifth, the best o the three Scottish coars.

Efter a threap wi the fiars o Hughenden (Hillheid Sports Club) the Glasgow Warriors flittit tae Firhill 

Celtic League

Warriors - Newport-Gwent Dragons 23:24
Llanelli Scarlets - Warriors 31:17
Warriors - Munster 24:13
Cardiff Blues - Warriors 27:9
Embro - Warriors 14:9
Warriors - Borders 25:0
Ospreys - Warriors 26:9
Warriors - Connacht

Challenge Cup

Saracens (ING) - Warriors 28:23
Warriors - Parma (ITA)

Nummer Aicht

Scrum Hauf

Fly Hauf

Fou Hinderend




#Article 328: Hughenden Stadium (317 words)


Hughenden is a rugby pairk, the hame o Hillheid/Jordanhill an Glesca Rugby blaws a capacity o five an a hauf thoosand. It is in the Wast End o Glesca.

Laich-level trein tae Hyndland
Gang caurie oot o the station up tae the tap o Novar Drive. Gang caurie alang Hyndland Road an Hughenden is the caurie turn directly afore the tennis club.

Mony omnibuses gang alang Great Western Road (whit is alangside the pairk). Wheen o whit are 11, 20, 41 an 66. Git aff the omnibus at the stap immediately afore seicont traffec lunts efter the Botanic Gardens junction. Gang caurie intae Hyndland Road an doremaist richt doon loan tae Hughenden Road an rugby pairk. The 44 omnibus gangs fae the ceety mids to Hyndland Road an aw - git aff at the stap juist efter the Rock pub.

Gin you're traivelling by caur fae the north or east tak the M8 to Glesca an ootgate fae junction 17, sign-posted for Dumbarton. At the end o the slip road, gang richt at the traffec lunts an tak the flyower back ower the motorway. Follae this gate (Great Western Road) for roond aboot 3 km. Weir in the Botanic Gardens on your richt an gang straicht yont the neist set of traffec lunts. Gang caurie at the follaein set o traffec lunts intae Hyndland Road, an first richt efter the tennis club.

Tak the M8 to Glesca, cross the Kingston Bridge an ootgang fae Junction 18 sign-posted for Dumbarton. At the end o the slip road, gang richt at the traffec lunts an tak the flyower back across the motorway. Follae this road (Great Western Road) for roond aboot 3 km. Pass the Botanic Gardens on your richt an gang straicht through the neist set o traffec lunts. Gang caurie at the follaeing set o traffec lunts intae Hyndland Road, then first richt efter the tennis club.




#Article 329: ScotRail (384 words)


ScotRail rins aw hamelt railwey onwaitins in Scotland, an the ower-Mairch Caledonian Sleeper onwaitin tae Lunnon an aw.

On 17t October, 2004, First teuk ower the onwaitin fae National Express, the first tid the franchise haen tae be renegotiatit syne the quatein o British Rail.

The hail o the netwirk is 2,729 km (1,696 miles), an it haunled 66.1 million vaiges in 2003-4. 

The densest pairt o the netwirk is the suburban ane roond aboot Glesca wi 183 stances - the seicont muckle maist suburban rail netwirk in the Unitit Kinrick efter Lunnon. Maist o it os 25kV AC electrick. Glesca's main stances are Central and Queen Street. Awtho ScotRail operate trains in this airt, they dae sae ablo the cry o Strathclyde Passenger Transport, wha mak the tid-brods.

Edinburgh's netwirk is weer than Glesca's but is yit extensive - main stance is Waverley Station.

Express services gang atween Edinburgh, Glesca, Innerness an Aiberdeen.

Landwart lines include the West Highland, Kyle an Faur North Lines.

Maist o Scotland's 340 stances are operatit fae First ScotRail wi Network Rail haein aucht - the exception bein Prestwick International Airport (Prestwick International Airport), Dunbar (GNER), Edinburgh Waverley an Glesca Central (baith Network Rail). 

The present diesel fleet is comprised o a munge o Breetish Rail Cless 156 Sprinter an Breetish Rail Cless 158 Express Sprinter units, that wis gat throu the Breetish Rail era, an Breetish Rail Cless 170 Turbostar sets gat efter privatisation.

The praisent electrick fleet includes Breetish Rail Cless 314, Breetish Rail Cless 318, Breetish Rail Cless 320, Breetish Rail Cless 322 an Breetish Rail Cless 334 units.

The Scotland-Euston owernicht services are comprised o ex-InterCity, Breetish Rail Merk 2 an Breetish Rail Merk 3|Merk coaches, that are hauled by EWS locomotives.

Throu 2005, the Edinburgh-North Berwick line wis operated by EWS-Breetish Rail Cless 90 electrick locomotives wi umwhile Virgin Trains Merk 3 coaches. In ahint 2005, Breetish Rail Cless 322 units wis reintroduced ontae the line. A refurbishment programme is takkin place for thae units. It is confeered bad uise o resources tae uiss diesel trains oan a fu'y electric line.

The performance feegurs for National Express’s hint raith as franchise hauders, Julie tae September 2004, are:

The performance feegurs for First Group’s foremaist raith as franchise hauders, October to Dizember 2004, are:




#Article 330: Rugby union (941 words)


Rugby union (aften referred tae as rugby, union or fitba) is a variant o rugby fitbaw. Rugby union is aye played wi teams o 15 players, awtho thare's rugby sievens an aw, a swippert gemme wi 7 players on  baith teams. The name comes fae the the gemme's foremaist owerseein body, the Rugby Football Union. It is ane o the twa codes o rugby, the ither bein rugby league.

The gemme wis developed frae the rules uised tae play fitbaw at Rugby schuil in Ingland. The main differ frae fitbaw is that in rugby the baw is an oval, no a sphere, an that the players is alloued tae lift the baw up an rin wi it. The players is alloued tae fling the baw fae player tae player, but no forrit: the baw maun gang sideweys or back whan flung.

It is a popular gemme parteecularly in Nou Zealand, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, Wales, Ingland, Ireland, Scotland, Fraunce, Australie, Argentina an Sooth Africae. Rugby union is winnin mair parteecipants in Italie, efter its acceptance intae the Sax Nations, an Japan, mauger thair failt ettle tae haud the 2011 Rugby Warld Cup that gaed tae New Zealand. 

The International Rugby Board (IRB), foondit in 1886, governs the gemme an sets furth the gemme's   an aw. Thare's 95 full members an 8 associate member kintras the nou. Frae IRB feegures, rugby is gettin played in mair nor 100 kintras ower five continents by men an weemen o aw eilds.  The IRB haes owerins ower the Rugby Warld Cup, the Weemen's Rugby Warld Cup, Rugby Warld Cup Sievens, IRB Sievens Warld Series, Nether 21 Warld Cup, Unner 19 Warld Cup, an the Super Pouers Cup. It will haud votes for tae wirk oot whaur thir events is tae be be hauden.

The gemme lasts for 80 meenits (twa haufs o 40 meenits) an is guided by a referee that twa touch judges gies a haund tae. Ilks team alternately attacks the opposition dale or fends thair ain. Thir dales is merkit at baith ends o the pitch by twa muckle (10 m or mair) stobs set 5.6 m apairt, an connectit by a cross-bauk 3 m abuin the grund; the hail formin the shape o a letter H. A team can score by kickin the baw atween the stobs an ower the cross-bauk, but the baw can anerly be kickit frae the grund: aither frae a place kick efter the awaird o a penalty or frae a drap kick in open play. A successfu kick at the dale is wirth three pynts. The area ahint ilka set o dale stobs is cawed the in goal are an the attackin team can score by grundin the baw here: cryed a try an wirth five pynts. Efter scorin a try, the attackin team is gien a free kick at the dale (cryed a conversion) for an extra twa pynts.

A rugby union pairk consists o a maximum gemme area o 144x70m on a girse surface. Lines are pentit on tae the field at regular intervals; deid baw line, try line, 22 metre line (afore the metric system was introduced, this wis the 25-yard line), 10 metre line (braiken line) an haufwiy. This is mirrored oan the other side o the pairk. Lines are 5 metres awa fae the try line an side line an 15 metres awa fae the side line. The length fae try line tae try line is aye 100 metres; the ane varying distances oan a rugby pairk are the wadth o the pairk, an the distance fae try line to deid baw line.

A rugby union coar consists o 15 players, eicht furrits nummered 1 tae 8, an sieven backs, nummered 9 tae 15. Depending oan the competition, thare may be up tae sieven replacements (substitutes or reserves). Professional rugby can hae sieven reserves, wi a player bein allouit tae be substituted ance, hin thiy are a front rower an are replacing an injured front rower. Anither exception tae this rule is the bluid bin whaur a player wi a visible hagger can lea' the gemme for 10 meenits an then retour tae continue efter gettin treatment. A player sent tae the bluid bin may be replaced gin anither player during treatment; if the bluidit player retours tae the gemme athin 10 meenits, it is no coontit as a substitution.

The main role o the furrits is tae git an haud possession o the baw. They tak pairt in set pieces of the scrum an the line-oot. Aye, furrits are mair muckle than the backs, which maks them mair savendie bit mair langsome. Furrits  hae a role in takkin the baw furrit an aw, but aye dae sae gin drivin intae the opposing forwards.

The role o the backs is tae muive the gemme furrit gin runnin or kickin the baw. The scrum-hauf will git possession o the baw fae the furrits an aye feed it tae the fly hauf (no.10) wha then controls how the attacking coar will gang. The backline will aye score its tries gin focussing on the tactical placement o players, makkin holes in the opposition defence line. A guid backine will mak the opposition commit muckle mony players at strategic points allowing for space tae open up for the mair fast, outside backs (wingers an fullback).

The foalyin picter locates the various positions in the 15-man coar. Aw members o the stairting 15 weir sarks nummered fae 1 tae 15 an keyed tae their positions. The foremaist eicht players, kent as furrits or the pack, play in the scrum. The ither sieven players play as the backs.




#Article 331: Munster (223 words)


Munster (Erse: An Mhumhain) is a province in Ireland, alang wi Leinster, Connacht an Ulster. It's muckle maist ceity is Cork.

The name comes frae the Celtic goddess Muma. Munster wis spleet intae three kinricks, Thomond (North Munster), Desmond (South Munster), an Ormond (East Munster). Thir three kinrinks are representit in the banner o Munster.

Afore the muckle Erse Faimin, Munster haed a population o aboot 3 million fok, but this drappit endue tae emigration.

Durin the Erse Ceevil Weir, Munster creatit a Munster Republic agin the Anglo-Erse Treaty, but it anerly lestit 30 days, afore bein retakken bi the Erse Free State.

Thare are a nummer o Gaeltacht areas in Munster, whare the Erse leid is spoken. Thare are mony Gaelscoileanna (Erse leid schuils) in Munster an aw, and the nummer is increasin.

The maist faur ben sports in Munster are Gaelic Games, fitbaa and rugby.

Munster haes haed a lot o success in gaelic games, three o the fower maist successfu teams in hurling are frae Munster an in Gaelic fitbaa Kerry are the maist successfu team.

Rugby is a verra faur ben sport in Munster. Munster Rugby are a successfu team, wunnin the Celtic League in 2003 an the Heineken Cup twice, in 2006 an 2008.

Soccer is faur ben, wi fower teams in the League o Ireland.

Munster Rugby




#Article 332: Heineken Cup (541 words)


The Heineken Cup sponsored bi Heineken (kent as the H Cup in Fraunce acause o alcohol adverteesin laws) is an annual rugby union cup wi major club, regional an provincial teams frae the Sax Nations: England, Fraunce, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, an Italy. It is ane o the maist presteegious cups in sport.

The tournament wis lenched in the European simmer o 1995 on the ineetiative o the auld Five Nations Comattee for tae mak a new level o profeesional cross mairch competeetion. The current chaimpions is the Irish rugby team, Munster that beat Biarritz in the feenal at Cardiff.

Places in the Heineken Cup is allocate tae the sax competin nations on the follaein basis:

The ither twa places in the 24 team tournament is allocate as follaes:

Ane frae Fraunce, England or Italy; the place is allocate tae the kintra that's team progressed faurer in the afore gane saison's cup.  Syne Toulouse wan the 2004-05 cup, thare wis sieven French teams in the 2005-06 competeetion. Seemilar, thare will be sieven French teams in the 2006-07 competeetion, courtesy o Biarritz makkin it tae the cup feenal agin the Irish side Munster.

The ither team is the winner o a pleyaff in Italy agin

(a) the best-placed team in the Celtic League that haesna syne qualifee'd, an

(b) the team feenishin 3rd in the Italian Super 10.

In 2005-06, this team wis Cardiff that beat Viadana in the pleyaff.

In 2006-07, this team wis Overmach Parma that beat Newport Gwent Draigons in the pleyaff.

Ilk nation sets its ain criteria for qualification for the Heineken Cup, but maun gie places tae the Cup winners an the winners o the European Chailenge Cup. Teams that daesna qualifee for the Heineken Cup can enter the European Chailenge Cup.

Frae 2005 ae team fae ilk nation will be seedit?.

Sax puils o fower teams pleys baith hame an awa gemmes. Fower pynts is awairdit for a win an twa pynts for a draw.

A bonus pynt is awairdit for a loss by sieven pynts or less, or for scorin fower tries or mair.

The sax Puil winners (rankit 1-6 bi nummer o pynts scored) an twa best placed rinners-up (rankit 7 an 8) qualifee's for the Quarter-Feenals.

Teams rankit 1-4 haes hame advantage. The Quarter-Feenals is: Team 1 v Team 8; Team 2 v Team 7; Team 3 v Team 6; Team 4 v Team 5.

Aw matches is pleyed at nominally neutral venues. Ilk o the twa hauf feenal venues is in the kintra o the foremaist team oot o the hat whan the draw is makkit. For example, in 2004, Munster v London Wasps wis pleyed at Lansdowne Road in Dublin, yit Stade Toulousain v Biarritz Olympique was pleyed in Bordeaux.

The hauf feenal venue maun meet the follawin addeetional criteria an aw:

The feenal is hauden at a predetermined site, neist saison it's Twickenham

Puil 1: Benetton Treviso, Perpignan, Wasps, Castres

Puil 2: Edinburgh, SU Agen, Gloucester Rugby, Leinster

Puil 3: Sale Sharks, Stade Français, Calvisano, Ospreys

Puil 4: Cardiff Blues, Bourgoin, Leicester Tigers, Munster

Puil 5: Ulster, Toulouse, London Irish, Llanelli Scarlets

Puil 6: Biarritz, Northampton Saints, Overmach Rugby Parma, Border Reivers

For mair details, see Heineken Cup feenals.

Celtic League




#Article 333: Mazurek Dąbrowskiego (106 words)


Mazurek Dąbrowskiego is the naitional sang o Poland. It wis written an componed bi Józef Wybicki. It wis written in 1797 in Rome. It is scribt in the Pols leid.

Jeszcze Polska nie zginęła,
Kiedy my żyjemy.
Co nam obca przemoc wzięła,
Szablą odbierzemy.
 
Marsz, marsz Dąbrowski,
Z ziemi włoskiej do Polski.
Za twoim przewodem
Złączym się z narodem.
 
Przejdzie Wisłę, przejdziem Wartę,
Będziem Polakami.
Dał nam przykład Bonaparte,
Jak zwyciężać mamy.
 
Marsz, marsz...
 
Jak Czarniecki do Poznania
Po szwedzkim zaborze,
Dla ojczyzny ratowania
Wrócim się przez morze.
 
Marsz, marsz...
 
Już tam ojciec do swej Basi
Mówi zapłakany -
Słuchaj jeno, pono nasi
Biją w tarabany




#Article 334: Pols Pairlament (111 words)


The Polish Pairlament is the legislatur o Poland. It is subordinate tae the Prime Meenister o Poland (Donald Tusk, since 2007), that in turn is subordinate tae the Preses o Poland (Lech Kaczyński). It is made up o the Senat an the Sejm. The Senat is the heicher hoose o pairlament. The Senat haes 100 seats, the Sejm 460.
 
In 2007 the coaleetion: PiS+SO+LPR cam tae the conclusion that it is nae langer possible tae rule an muived tae demit the pairlament. 
Members o the pairlament votit tae demit.

Efter the elections o 2007, the strenths o the pairties is:

Efter the elections o 2005 the strenths o the pairties wis:




#Article 335: Business (164 words)


A buisiness is a wey o organeesin wark, whaur ane or mair fowk offers tae sell gear or service tae ither fowk, for mair siller than it costs them tae mak or provide it. The differ gies siller tae pey the boss an his chiels, an likely tae keep a warkshop an ony byordinar gear needit. The nummer o fowk that works for a buisiness can be juist the ane, sic as in a baurber shop in a smaw toun, or as mony as hunders o thoosans o fowk aw ower the warld, sic as in a company that dreels for ile.

Some buisinesses dinna need a fixed place lik an office or a shop. A jyner or an electreecian that works for themsels maistlins taks awthing thay need for wark wi them, an fishermen that bides at sea wark oot o thair boats.

Buisiness, athoot an airticle, maistlins refers tae the current state o the ae buisiness or various buisinesses: Buisiness is guid. 




#Article 336: Turkey (205 words)


Turkey (Turkis: Türkiye), kent offeecially as the Republic o Turkey (Turkis: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti) is a muckle kintra in Eurasie. It haes laund mairches wi Greece an Bulgarie tae the wast an Georgie, Armenie, Azerbaijan (kent thegither as the Caucasus kintras), Iran, Iraq an Sirie tae the east an watter mairches wi the Mediterranean Sea tae the sooth.

The kintra wis the centre o the Ottoman Empire that haed owerins ower mony different kintras in baith wast Asie an sooth-east Europe. Houaniver, efter the First Warld War the Ottoman Empire wis malafousterd. It haed been allee'd tae Germany an efter the defeat o thon kintra an it's allees thare wis a brief period o occupation o twa o the kintra's muckle maist ceeties; Istanbul an Izmir bi the Allee'd Pooers. Houaniver, the kintra wis leeberatit unner the heidsmanship o Mustafa Kemal, kent forby as Ataturk (The Faither o the Turks in Turkis) an it becam an unthirlt republic in the 1920s. The caipital o Turkey is Ankara, but its muckle maist ceety is Istanbul that's seetuate in the wast o the kintra an wis historically kent as Constantinople an wis the caipital o the Eastren Roman or Byzantine Empire.

Turkey haes aboot 74,816,000 fowk in it.




#Article 337: Leninism (236 words)


In Marxist philosophy, Leninism is the body o poleetical theory for the democratic organisation o a revolutionary vanguard pairty, an the achievement o a direct-democracy dictatorship o the proletariat, as poleetical prelude tae the establishment o socialism. Developit bi, an namit for, the Roushie revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, Leninism comprises political an socialist economic theories, developit frae Marxism, an Lenin’s interpretations o Marxist theory, for practical application tae the socio-political conditions o the agrarian Roushie Empire (1721–1917) o the early 20t century. In Februar 1917, Leninism wis the Roushie application o Marxist economics an poleetical philosophy, effectit an realised bi the Bolshevik pairty, the vanguard pairty who led the fecht for the poleetical unthirldom o the wirkin class. Functionally, the vanguard pairty providit the poleetical education, an the revolutionary leadership and organisation necessary to depose capitalism in Imperial Roushie. Efter the October Revolution o 1917, Leninism wis the dominant version o Marxism in Roushie, an then the offeecial ideology o Soviet democracy (bi wirkers’ cooncil) in the Roushie Socialist Federal Soviet Republic (RSFSR), afore its unitary amalgamation intae the Union o Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), in 1922. As a poleetical-science term, Leninism entered common uisage in 1922, anerlie efter infirmity endit Lenin’s participation in govrenin the Roushie Communist Pairty. Twa years later, in Julie 1924, at the fift congress o the Communist International (Comintern), Grigory Zinoviev popularized the uise o the term Leninism tae denote “vanguard-pairty revolution”.




#Article 338: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (102 words)


Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi (Arabic: محمد بن موسى الخوارزمي) wis a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer an geographer frae Persie. He is thocht tae be born in 780 AD an dee'd aboot 850.

He wrate a beuk cried al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr wa-l-muqābala (Arabic: الكتاب المختصر في حساب الجبر والمقابلة, 'The beuk o summary anent calculatin bi transposeition an reduction'). This wis the first beuk anent reddin linear an quadratic equations. In fact, we get the wird algorithm frae his name (al-Khwarizmi).

Forby thon, he's kent for his wark wi algebra an giein the Wast the mathematical nummer zero an aw.




#Article 339: Hansel an Gretel (114 words)


Hansel an Gretel is a story for wee weans. It tells o twa weans that gaed for a wee daunder in the wids, drappin breid ahint them for tae find their wey back hame, but the birdies ate aw the bried an they forwandert. 

Syne they came ower a gibbery hoose - whaur it turnt oot that a carline bidit. The carline got a grip o them an wis gaun tae eat them, but whan she telt Gretel tae gang intae the stove, Gretel wi a wee slicht wiced the carline tae get intae the stove first for tae mak siccar it wis het eneuch. 

Syne the weans ran awa back tae their faither.




#Article 340: Catholic Kirk (102 words)


The Roman Catholic Kirk is the lairgest Christian denomination in aw the warld. Ane oot o ilka sax humans belangs this kirk. It is lead bi the Pape an it haes ower ae billion follaers un da auld t'eeder. Accordin tae Catholics, the verra first Pape wis St. Peter that wis made Pape bi Jesus himsel. Sae the Roman Catolick kirk can follae its line aw the wey back tae St. Peter, in a direct line o succession throu the Papes (the Haily Faithers or Bishops o Roum). The Pape the nou is Pape Francis. In Scotland thare's ower 800,000 Catolick fowk.




#Article 341: Politics (159 words)


Politics is the wey that groups maks deciesions. Aatho the term is for ordinar applee'd tae haivins athin guvernments, politics is obserred in aw human (an a wheen nae-human) group interactions, includin corporate, academic, an reliegious institutions.

Scotland haes a wheen polietical beliefs. Tradietionally the Central Belt haes been mair left-wing an socialist, while the mair landwart airts haes been mair conservative. Glesga in partiecular is a gey socialist ceety, cawed Red Clydeside at ae pynt; the Scots Labour Pairty wis tradietionalie gey strang thare, alang wi the Scots Socialist Pairty an Solidarity. Embra haed a repute for bein mair conservativer, but haes become mair lieberal no lang syne, an the Scots Green Pairty is partiecularly strang thare.

As weel as differs atween the left an richt wings, anither muckle polietical divide in Scotland is the ane atween unionism an naitionalism; Scots naitionalism is representit bi a wheen o pairties that wants tae polietical sinder Scotland frae the UK. 




#Article 342: Linux (2467 words)


Linux (kent as GNU/Linux an aw) is ae Unix-like computer operatin seestem. It is ane o the maist kenspeckle examplars o open soorce development an free saftware; unlik proprietary operatin seestems sic as Microsoft Windows or Mac OS X, its unnerlyin soorce code is tae haunde for onybody tae uise, chynge, an caw aboot for nae chairge.

First developit an uised tae the maist pairt bi single enthusiasts oan personal computers, Linux haes nou gained the support o muckle companies sic as IBM, Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard,  an Novell, Inc., an haes risen tae prominence as an operatin seestem for servers; aicht o the ten maist reliable internet hostin companies nou rins Linux oan thair wab servers.

In 1983, Richard Stallman foondit the GNU Project, wi the ettle o developin ae complete Unix-like operatin seestem composit haily o free saftware. Bi the stairt o the 1990s, GNU haed creatit or collectit maist o the necessar components o this seestem — librars, compilers, text editors, ae Unix shell — except for the core component, the kirnel. The GNU project stairtit developin ae kirnel, the GNU Hurd, in 1990, foodit oan the Mach microkirnel, but the development o this Mach-basit design haes pruiven gey haurd an proceedit slaw.

In atween times, in 1991, anither kirnel wis begoud as ae habby bi Finnish varsity student Linus Torvalds while attendin the Varsity o Helsinki. Torvalds oreeginally uised Minix oan his ain computer, ae simplifee'd Unix-like seestem written bi Andrew Tanenbaum for learnin operatin seestem design. Forby thon Tanenbaum didna allou ithers tar rax his operatin seestem, leadin Torvalds tae big ae replacement for Minix.

Oreeginally, Torvalds cried his kirnel Freax for free an freak an wi the aften-uised X in the names o Unix-like seestems. The name Linux wis cleckit bi Ari Lemmke, wha admeenistert an FTP server aucht the Finnish Varsity Network; he cleckit the name Linux for the directory that Torvalds' project wis first tae hund for dounlade frae.

At first ae computer rinnin Minix wis necessar for tae confeegur an instaw Linux. Ineetial versions o Linux needit anither operatin seestem tae be present for tae boot frae ae haurd disk, but suin thare war independent boot laders sic as LILO. The Linux seestem quickly surpassed Minix in functionality; Torvalds an ither early Linux kirnel developers adaptit thair wark for the GNU components an uiser-space programmes for tae creaut ae hale, fully functional, an free operatin seestem.

The day, Torvalds conteenas tae guide the oncome o the kirnel, while ither subseestems sic as the GNU components conteeas tae be developit separate (Linux kirnel development isna pairt o the GNU Project). Ither groups an companies combines an distributes thir components wi addeetional application saftware in the form o Linux distributions.

see an aw: Linux (kirnel) / Portabeelity

The Linux kirnel wis oreeginally designed anerly for Intel 80386 microprocessors, but nou uphauds ae braid hatter o computer architectures. Linux is ane o the maist waften portit operatin seestems, rinnin oan ae diverse reenge o seestems frae the haund-hauden ARM-basit iPAQ tae the mainframe IBM System z9. Speecialized deestributions exists for less mainstream architectures.

The Linux kirnel an maist GNU saftware is licensed unner the GNU General Public License. The GPL requires that aw deestributit soorce code modifications an derived warks be licensed unner the GPL an aw, an is whiles cried a share an share-alike or copyleft license. Qho Linus Torvalds in 1997 Making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did. Ither saftware micht uise ither licenses; mony librars uises the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), ae mair permissive variant o the GPL, an the X Window System uises the MIT License.

In the Unitit States, the name Linux is ae tredemerk registert tae Linus Torvalds. 
Initially, naebody registert it, but oan August 15, 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the tredemerk Linux, an syne demaundit ryalties frae Linux deestributors. In 1996, Torvald an ae wheen affectit organisations sued for tae hae the tredemerk assigned tae Torvalds, an in 1997 the case wis settelt. The licensin o the tredemerk is nou haundelt bi the Linux Mark Institute. Torvalds haes statit that he juist tredemerkit the name for tae hinder ither bodies frae uisin it, but wis bund in 2005 bi Unitit States tredemerk law tae tak active meisurs tae uphaud the tredemerk. The affcome wis that the LMI sent oot ae nummer o letters tae deestribution vendors speirin that ae fee be peyed for the uiss o the name, an ae wheen companies haes complee'd.

In 1992, Torvalds expponed hou he soonds the wird Linux:

Ae soond file o Torvalds sayin Hello, this is Linus Torvalds, and I pronounce Linux as Linux can be fund . Merk that in Inglis, Linux an Minix is for ordinar soodit wi ae cutty i (IPA: /ɪ/) soond that differs frae Torvalds' Finland-Swedish soondin o thir wirds, seemilar tae the differ atween the Finland-Swadish an Inglis soondins o Linus. The Finland-Swedish soondin {IPA /'linʌks/} hauds tae Scots phonology an aw.

The ettle o the GNU project is tae produce ae Unix-compatible operatin seestem conseestin haily o free saftware, an maist general-purpose Linux distributions relies oan librars an tuils written tae that effect. The Free Software Foundation sees thir Linux distributions as variants o the GNU seestem, an asks that sic operatin seestems be referred tae as GNU/Linux or a Linux-basit GNU seestem. While some distributions maks ae pynt o uisin the soudert form - for ordinar Debian GNU/Linux - its uiss ootwi the enthusiast community is leemitit, an Linus Torvalds haes said that he finds cryin Linux in general GNU/Linux just ridiculous . The disteenction atween the Linux kirnel an distributions foondit oan it is ae soorce o raivelment tae mony newcomers, an the namin bides controversial.

In Mairch 2003, the SCO Group pit in ae lawsuit agin IBM, thrapin that IBM haed contributit pairts o SCO's copyrichtit code tae the Linux kirnel in veeolation o IBM's leecense tae uise Unix. Mair oot ower, SCO sent letters tae ae wheen companies wairnin that thair uiss o Linux athoot ae leecense frae SCO micht be actionable, an threapit in the press that thay wad be lawin indiveedual Linux uiser. This controversy haes involved lawsuits bi SCO agin DaimlerChrysler (dismissed in 2004), an AutoZone, an bi Red Hat an ithers agin SCO. Furthermair, whither SCO e'en awns the relevant Unix copyrichts is currently disputit bi Novell.

As per the Utah Destrict Coort rulin oan Juilie 3rd, 2006; 182 claims oot o  294 claims made bi SCO agin IBM haes been dismissed.

SCO's threaps haes varied widely. As o 2006, nae pruif o SCO's claims o copied code in Linux haes been providit.

More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size, ae 2001 study o Red Hat Linux 7.1, foond that this distribution contained 30 million soorce lines o code. Uisin the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimatit that this distribution required aboot aicht thoosand man-years o development time. Accordin tae the study, if aw this saftware haed been developit bi conventional proprietary means, it wad hae cost aboot 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) tae develop in the United States.

The majority o the code (71%) wis written in the C programmin language, but mony ither leids war uised, includin C++, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Fortran,  Python an various shell scriptin leids. Slichtly ower hauf o aw lines o code war licensed unner the GPL. The Linux kirnel wis 2.4 million lines o code, or 8% o the total.

In ae later study, Counting potatoes: The size of Debian 2.2, the same analysis wis performed for Debian GNU/Linux version 2.2. This distribution contained ower fifty-five million soorce lines o code, an the study estimatit that it wad hae cost 1.9 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) tae develop bi conventional means.

Linux haes historically been uised mainly as ae server operatin seestem, but its law cost, flexibility, an Unix background mak it suitable for ae wide reenge o applications.

Linux is the cornerstone o the LAMP server-saftware combination (Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which haes achieved popularity amang developers, an which is ane o the mair common platforms for wabsite hostin.

Due tae its law cost an its heich configurability, Linux is eften uised in embedded seestems sic as telly set-top boxes, mobile phones, an handheld devices. Linux haes acome ae major competitor tae the proprietary Symbian OS foond in mony mobile phones, an it is an alternative tae the dominant Windows CE an Palm OS operatin seestems oan handheld devices. The popular TiVo digital video recorder uises ae customized version o Linux. Several network firewall an router standalone products, includin several frae Linksys, uise Linux internally, uisin its advanced firewallin an routin capabilities.

Linux is increasingly common as an operatin seestem for supercomputers. In the November 2005 TOP500 leet o supercomputers, the twa fastest supercomputers in the warld ran Linux. O the 500 seestems, 371 (74.2%) ran some version o Linux, includin seiven o the tap ten.

The Sony PlayStation 3 video game console, scheduled tae be releasit in November 2006, will rin Linux bi default. Sony haes previously releasit ae PS2 Linux dae-it-yourself kit for thair PlayStation 2 video game console. Game developers like Atari an id Software hae releasit titles tae the Linux desktop. Linux Game Publishing an aw produces gemmes for Linux, licensing an portin them frae thair Windows soorce code.

The One Laptop Per Child project, which aims tae provide computin devices tae aw childer in developin nations, uises Linux as the devices' operatin seestem.

Linux is predominantly uised as pairt o ae Linux distribution (commonly cried ae distro). Thir are compiled bi individuals, loose-knit teams, an commercial an volunteer organisations. Thay commonly include additional seestem an application saftware, an installer seestem tae ease initial seestem setup, an integrated management o saftware installation an upgradin. Distributions are creatit for mony deifferent purposes, includin computer architecture support, localization tae ae specific region or language, real-time applications, an embedded seestems, an mony deliberately include anly free saftware. Currently, ower three hunder distributions are actively developit, wi aboot ae dozen distributions bein maist popular for general-purpose uise.

Ae teepical general-purpose distribution includes the Linux kirnel, some GNU librars an tuils, command-line shells, the graphical X Window Seestem an accompanyin desktop environments sic as KDE or GNOME, thegither wi thoosands o application saftware packages, frae office suites tae compilers, text editors, an scienteefic tuils.

The heich level o access granted tae Linux's internals haes led tae Linux uisers tradeetionally tendin tae be mair technologically oriented than uisers o Microsoft Windows and Mac OS, whiles revellin in the tag o hacker or geek. Linux an ither free saftware projects hae been frequently criticized for nae goin far enough tae ensure ease o uise.

This stereotype haes begun tae be dispelled in recent years. Linux mey nou be uised wi ae uiser interface that is gey seemilar tae those rinnin oan ither operatin seestems. Uisers mey hae tae switch application saftware, an thare are eften fewer kent options (as in the case o computer games) but thare exist replacements for aw general-purpose saftware, an general applications like spreadsheets, wird processors, an browsers are available for Linux in profusion. Additionally, ae growin nummer o proprietary saftware vendors are supportin Linux, and compatibility layers sic as the Wine seestem allou some Windows application saftware an drivers tae be uised oan Linux wioot requirin the vendor tae adapt them.

Linux's roots in the Unix operatin seestem mean that in addition tae graphical configuration tuils and control panels available for mony seestem settins and services, plain-text configuration files are still commonly uised tae configure the OS and can readily be made accesible (or nae) tae uisers, at the administrator's will.

The Berlin-basit organisation Relevantive concluded in 2003 that the usability o Linux for ae set o desktop-relatit tasks wis nearly equal to Windows XP. Syne then, thare hae been numerous independent studies and articles which indicate that ae modren Linux desktop uisin aither GNOME or KDE is on par wi Microsoft Windows in ae business settin.

Accordin tae the mercat research company IDC, 25% o servers and 2.8% o desktop computers ran Linux as o 2004. Proponents and analysts attribute the success o Linux tae its security, reliability, law cost, an freedom frae vendor lock-in,. The frictional cost o switchin and lack o support for some hardware and mony application programs designed for Windows, especially gemmes or uncommon business saftware, are twa important factors inhibitin adoption.

The Linux mercat is rapidly growin and the revenue o servers, desktops, an packaged saftware rinnin Linux is expected tae exceed $35.7 billion bi 2008. The actual installed uiser base mey be higher than indicated bi this figure, as maist Linux distributions and applications are freely available and redistributable.

The paper Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers! identifies mony quantitative studies o open soorce saftware, oan topics includin mercat share and reliability, wi mony studies specifically examinin Linux. 

The maist common method o installin Linux oan ae personal computer is bi bootin frae ae CD-ROM that contains the installation program and installable saftware. Sic ae CD can be burned frae ae downladed ISO image, purchased alone for ae law price, can be obtained as pairt o ae box set that mey an aw include manuals and additional commercial saftware an in ae wheen cases shipped for free bi request. Mini CD images allou Linux tae be installed frae ae disk wi ae small form factor.

As wi servers, personal computers that come wi Linux already installed are available fra vendors includin Hewlett-Packard and Dell, awtho generally anly for thair business desktop line.

Alternatives tae traditional desktop installation include thin client installation, whaur the operatin seestem is laded and rin frae ae centralised machine ower ae netwark connection; and rinnin frae ae Live CD, whaur the computer boots the entire operatin seestem frae CD wioot first installin it oan the computer's haurd disk.

Oan embedded devices, Linux is teepically held in the device's firmware and mey or mey nae be consumer-accessible.

The GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) is the standard compiler faimily for maist seestems. Amongst ithers, GCC provides frontends for C, C++ and Java. Maist distributions come installed wi interpreters for Perl, Python and ither scriptin languages, and several nou include C# via the Mono project.

Thare are ae nummer o Integrated development environments available includin KDevelop, Anjuta, NetBeans, and Eclipse while the traditional editors Emacs and Vim remain popular.

The twa main widget tuilkits uised for contemporary GUI programmin are Qt and the Gimp Toolkit, kent as GTK+.

As well as thir free and open soorce options, thare are proprietary compilers and tuils available frae ae reenge o companies sic as Intel, and the Portland Group.




#Article 343: Hungary (585 words)


Hungary (Hungarian: Magyarország) is a kintra in Europe. It's bund bi Ukraine an Romanie tae the east, Serbie an Croatie tae the sooth, Austrick an Slovenie tae the wast, an Slovakie tae the north. Wi aboot 10 million inhabitants, Hungary is a medium-sized member state o the European Union. The offeecial leid is Hungarian, that is the maist widely spoken Uralic leid in the warld. Hungary's caipital an its lairgest ceity an metropolis is Budapest, a signeeficant economic hub, clessifee'd as a leadin global ceity. Major urban areas include Debrecen, Szeged, Miskolc, Pécs an Győr.

Follaein centuries o successive habitation bi Celts, Romans, Germanic fowk, Wast Slavs, Avars, an the Huns the foondation o Hungary wis laid in the late 9t century bi the Hungarian grand prince Árpád in the conquest o the Carpathian Basin. He founded the Principality o Hungary whilk lasted from 895-1000. His great-grandson Stephen I ascendit the throne in 1000, convertin the kintra tae a Christian kinrick. Bi the 12t century, Hungary becam a middle pouer within the Wastren warld, reachin a gowden age bi the 15t century. Follaein the Battle o Mohács in 1526 an aboot 150 year o pairtial Ottoman occupation (1541–1699), Hungary cam unner Habsburg rule, an later formed the great pouer Austro–Hungarian Empire thegither wi Austrick.

Hungary's current mairches war established in 1920 bi the Treaty o Trianon efter Warld War I, whan the kintra lost 71% o its territory, 58% o its population, an 32% o ethnic Hungarians. Follaein the interwar period, Hungary jynt the Axis Powers in Warld War II, sufferin signeeficant damage an casualties. Hungary becam a satellite state o the Soviet Union, that contreibutit tae the establishment o a socialist republic spannin fower decades (1949–1989). The kintra gained widespread internaitional attention as a result o its Revolution o 1956 an the seminal appenin o its previously-restrictit mairch wi Austrick in 1989, that accelerated the collapse o the Eastren Bloc. On 23 October 1989, Hungary becam a democratic pairlamentary republic.

In the 21st century, Hungary is a middle pouer an haes the warld's 57t lairgest economy bi nominal GDP, as weel as the 58t lairgest bi PPP, oot o 191 kintras meisurt bi IMF. As a substantial actor in several industrial an technological sectors, it is the warld's 35t lairgest exporter an 34t lairgest importer o guids. Hungary is an OECD heich-income economy wi a verra heich staundart o leevin. It keeps up a social siccarity an universal heal care seestem, an a tuition-free varsity eddication. Hungary performs weel in internaitional rankins: it is 20t in quality o life, 24t in Guid Kintra Index, 28t in inequality-adjuistit human development, 32nt in the Social Progress Index, 33rd in Global Innovation Index an ranks as the 15t saufest country in the warld.

Hungary jynt the European Union in 2004 an haes been pairt o the Schengen Area syne 2007. Hungary is a member o the Unitit Naitions, NATO, WTO, Warld Bank, the AIIB, the Cooncil o Europe, the Visegrád Group an mair. Weel kent for its rich cultural history, Hungary haes contreibutit signeeficantly tae airts, muisic, leeteratur, sports an science an technology.Refers tae the kintra as widely considered tae be a home of music. Hungary is the 11t maist popular kintra as a tourist destination in Europe, attractin 15.8 million internaitional tourists in 2017. It is hame tae the lairgest thermal watter cave seestem an the seicont lairgest thermal loch in the warld, the lairgest loch in Central Europe an the lairgest naitural gresslands in Europe.




#Article 344: Shinty (131 words)


Shinty (Scots Gaelic: Camanachd or iomain) is a tradeetional stick an baw gemme o Scotland. The ruits o the gemme can be traced aw the wey back tae the times afore Jesus Christ. It is sib tae the Erse gemme o hurlin an ilka year the twa teams o Scotland an Ireland plays aff in the Shinty/Hurlin Cup.

It is afttimes cried the naitional gemme o Scotland awtho fitbaa, curlin an gowf aw claims this an aw.

Shinty haes sax senior leagues: diveesions ane an three in the North, twa in the Sooth an a premier league. As weel as the seniors, mony varsities sic as the Varsity in Glesga an Aiberdeen Varsity plays in a league o thair ain, an plays yearly for the Littlejohn Vase in an ae-day event.




#Article 345: Erse leid (154 words)


The Erse leid (Airisch or Airish in Ulstèr-Scotch; Erse: Gaeilge, Gaoluinn, Gaedhlag) is a Celtic leid frae Ireland. It is sib tae Scots an Manx Gaelic, an is ane o the twa offeecial leids o the Republic o Ireland an ane o the thrie o Northren Ireland. Frae the 1st o Januar 2007, the Erse leid becam ane o the offeecial leids o the E.U. The Erse spak in Dunnygal is the nearest tae Scots Gaelic, but ither dialects isna sae eith tae lift for Scots Gaelic spickers.

The pairts whaur Erse is still spak for common bi fowk is thegither cried the Gaeltacht. It is sindry bits o the kintra, whiles juist a single clachan, skailt athort sieven coonties - Dunnygal an Galway (the twa wi the maist), Mayo, Kerry, Cork, Waterford, an Meath. There's a wee pairt o Belfast whaur mony fowk spicks Erse an aw.

Aboot 1.66 million fowk spik Erse.




#Article 346: Ulster Scots leid (443 words)


Ulster Scots, kent as Ulstèr-Scotch an Ullans an aw, is the byleid o the Scots leid spak in Ulster (Norlin Airlan and tha Republic o Airlan). It is maistly spak bi the Ulster-Scots fowk awtho mony wirds, sic as glaikit an wee, haes been borraed intae the ilkaday speak o ither fowks. Policies whilk advance Erse an Ulster-Scots are tae be promoted in Norlin Airlan syne 2020. The leid can be pairtit intae three kynds: Westren Ulster Scots in Coonties Derry an Dunnygal, Central Ulster Scots in Coontie Antrim, an Eastren Ulster Scots in Coontie Doun an The Ards.

Estimates o the amoont o Ulster Scots speakers cheenge; frae a weel-hertit estimate o aboot 100,000 tae a laich ane o aboot 30,000 in the Northren Ireland Life and Times leuk o 1999. Loyalists are muckle mair likely tae speak it than naitionalists.

Ulster Scots is spak maistly in east Coonty Antrim, north Coonty Doun, north-east Coonty Lunnonderry, the Laggan aurie o Coonty Donegal an in the fishin veelages o the Mourne coast.

, the tradeetional Scots wird is cultur   (Cf. pictur  ). The Scots for leisure is leisur(e) [], aisedom (easedom  ) differs in meanin..

In the North/South Co-operation (Implementation Bodies) Northren Ireland Order 1999 Ulster Scots is defined as: the variety of the Scots language which has traditionally been used in parts of Northern Ireland and in Donegal in Ireland.

The defineetion frae the North/South Co-operation (Implementation Bodies) Northren Ireland Order 1999 abuin wis uised in the 1 Julie 2005 Second Periodical Report bi the Unitit Kinrick tae the Secretar General o the Cooncil o Europe shawin hou the UK meets its obligations unner the European Chairter for Regional an Minoritie Leids.

The Guid Friday Agreement o 1998 awns Ulster Scots as part of the cultural wealth of the island of Ireland, an estaiblished the Ulster-Scots Agency (Tha Boord o Ulstèr-Scotch) an aw. The Northren Ireland Asssemblie, stelt bi the Guid Friday Agreement, gies Ulster Scots speakers information in thair ain leid.

The declaration made bi the Unitit Kinrick Govrenment adae wi the European Chairter for Regional an Minoritie Leids is as follaes:

The United Kingdom declares, in accordance with Article 2, paragraph 1 of the Charter that it recognises that Scots and Ulster Scots meet the Charter's definition of a regional or minority language for the purposes of Part II of the Charter.

The Institute o Ulster Scots Studies wis estaiblished in 2001 bi the Varsity o Ulster.

BBC Northren Ireland hae a section on thair wabsteid on learnin Ulster Scots, an the Boord o Ulster Scots hae makkit a few buiks in Ulster Scots.

The Muse Dismissed (Hugh Porter 1780–1839)




#Article 347: Norlin Airlan Assemlie (128 words)


Tha Norlin Airlan Assemmlie (; Inglis: ) kent forby as Stormont (its location are tha Stormont Pairlament Biggins) is tha devolved govrenance o Norlin Airlan. Tha Assemmlie haes mair pooer than the Scots Pairlament anent sindèrie maitters fur Norlin Airlan whutch are nae reserved bi the Govrenment o the Unitit Kinrick in Wastmeenster, belike poust, lear, dwallins, fairmin an tha laa, an kin appoint tha Norlin Airlan Executive. 

It wis estaiblisht unner the Guid Friday Greeance but haes haed mony problems gettin gaun due tae freection atween Unionists an Naitionalists. Tha Assemblie clytet in Januarie 2017 acause o policy disagreements atween its pooer-sharin leadership follaein tha Renewable Heat Incentive stramash. In Januarie 2020, the British and Earse govrenments mad a greeance tae restore devolved govrenment in Norlin Airlan.




#Article 348: Protestantism (466 words)


Protestantism is the seicont lairgest form o Christianity wi collectively mair nor 900 million adherents warldwide or nearly 40% o aw Christians. It oreeginatit wi the 16t century Reformation, a muivement against whit its follaers perceived tae be errors in the Roman Catholic Kirk. Iver syne, Protestants reject the Roman Catholic doctrine o papal supremacy an sacraments, but disagree amang themsels regairdin the real presence o Christ in the Eucharist. Thay emphasise the priestheid o aw believers, justification bi faith alane () raither than bi guid warks, an the heichest authority o the Bible alane (raither nor wi saucrit tradeetion) in faith an morals (). The Five solae summarise basic theological differences in opposeetion tae the Roman Catholic Kirk.

Protestantism is popularly conseedert tae hae began in Germany in 1517 whan Martin Luther published his Ninety-five Theses as a reaction against abuisses in the sale o indulgences bi the Roman Catholic Kirk, that purportit tae offer remission o sin tae thair purchasers. Houiver, the term derives frae the letter o protestation frae German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict o the Diet o Speyer condemnin the teachins o Martin Luther as heretical. Awtho thare war earlier braks an attempts tae reform the Roman Catholic Kirk—notably bi Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, an Jan Hus—anerly Luther succeedit in spairkin a wider, lastin, an modren muivement. In the 16t century, Lutheranism spread frae Germany intae Denmark, Norawa, Swaden, Finland, Latvie, Estonie, an Iceland. Reformed (or Calvinist) denominations spreid in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Swisserland an Fraunce bi reformers sic as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, an John Knox. The poleetical separation o the Kirk o Ingland frae the pape unner Keeng Henry VIII begoud Anglicanism, bringin Ingland an Wales intae this braid Reformation muivement.

Protestants hae developed thair awn cultur, wi major contreibutions in eddocation, the humanities an sciences, the poleetical an social order, the economy an the airts, an mony ither fields.

Protestantism is diverse, bein mair dividit theologically an ecclesiastically than aither the Roman Catholic Kirk, the Eastren Orthodox Kirk, or Oriental Orthodoxy. Withoot structural unity or central human authority, Protestants developed the concept o an inveesible kirk, in contrast tae the Roman Catholic view o the Catholic Kirk as the veesible ane true Kirk foondit bi Jesus Christ. Some denominations dae hae a warldwide scope an distribution o membership, while ithers are confined tae a single kintra.  A majority o Protestants are members o a haundfu o Protestant denominational faimilies: Adventists, Anabaptists, Anglicans, Baptists, Reformed, Lutherans, Methodists, an Pentecostals. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent an ither kirks are on the rise, an constitute a signeeficant pairt o Protestant Christianity. Proponents o the brainch theory conseeder Protestantism ane o the three major diveesions o Christendom, thegither wi the Roman Catholic Kirk an Orthodoxy (baith Eastren an Oriental).




#Article 349: Cornish leid (124 words)


Cornish (in Cornish: Kernowek) is the Celtic leid o Cornwall, south-wast Breetain. It is ae pairt o the Brythonic brainch o Celtic leids. It comes frae the leid o the auld Britons, an is gey an sib tae the Breton leid. Cornish dee'd oot as a mither tongue in the late 18t century (aiblins earlie 19t) but wis brocht back by scholars in aboot the 1920s. Thare are aboot 300 fluent spaekers o modren Cornish the day, 500 fowk that can haud a conversation in Cornish an 3,500 fowk whaun ye include awbodie that kens onie o the leid. A few fowk haes e'en growed up lairnin Cornish as their mither tongue syne the revival. Thir fowk hae been cried neo-native spaekers o Cornish.




#Article 350: Welsh leid (188 words)


The Welsh leid () is a Celtic leid frae Wales. It is pairt o the Brythonic brainch o Celtic leids. It is maist sib wi Cornish an Breton. It is aiblins spak by as mony as 20% o the indwallers o Wales.

The touns and clanchans whaur maist o the fowk spiks Welsh is i the wast, and thai are cried bi some the Bro Gymraeg. The leid is still tynin grund here, akis thir airts is some o the bonniest pairts o the kintra and there mair and mair incummers frae Ingland that forordnar disna lern the leid.

S4C is the Welsh leid TV chainel that's braidcast in Wales as the fowert chainel, insteid o the Chainel 4 seen in Scotland, an it's braidcast throu SKY TV as S4C digidol (digital S4C). The deegital version haes mair Welsh programmes nor the analogue S4C.

Some o the mair weel kent speakers o Welsh is John Hartson, Gary Speed, an Imogen an Glynn frae Big Brother. It made a muckle steuchie in Big Brother whan Glynn an Imogen wis telt aff for speakin their mither tung on the shaw.




#Article 351: Isle o Man (114 words)


The Isle o Man (; ) or juist Mann (Manx: Mannin) is an iland in the Erse Sie. Awtho it isna pairt o the Unitit Kinrick it is a Croun Dependancie. The cultur o the iland is a mixtur o Celtic an Norse, tho the leid is Gaelic an sib til the Gaelic leid o Scotland an Ireland. It haes chynged haunds monies a tym ower the yeirs, bein pairt o the Norse Kinrick o the Isles as weil as pairt o the Kinrick o Scotland an the Kinrick o Ingland afore becumin a Croun Dependancie. It haes its ain pairliament cried the Tynwald, that is the auldest bydin pairliament in the hail warld.




#Article 352: Azerbaijan (485 words)


Azerbaijan (Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan), offeecially the Republic o Azerbaijan (Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan Respublikası) is the lairgest kintra in the Sooth Caucasus region o Eurasie. Locatit at the crossroads o Eastren Europe an Wastren Asie, it is boondit bi the Caspian Sea tae the east, Roushie tae the north, Georgie tae the northwast, Armenie tae the wast, an Iran tae the sooth.

The exclave o Nakhchivan is boondit bi Armenie tae the north an east, Iran tae the sooth an wast, while haein a short borderline wi Turkey tae the northwast. The enclaves o Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı an Sofulu are surroondit bi Armenie an hae been controlled bi it syne the Nagorno-Karabakh War. The majority-Armenian populatit Nagorno-Karabakh region in the southwest o Azerbaijan declared itself independent frae Azerbaijan in 1991, but it is no diplomatically recognised bi ony naition an is still considered a de jure pairt o Azerbaijan, bein occupied bi Armenian forces.

Azerbaijan Democratic Republic wis the first successfu attempt tae establish a democratic an secular republic in the Muslim warld. Nouadays Azerbaijan, a naition wi a majority Turkic an Shi‘ite Muslim population, is a secular an a unitary republic wi an auncient an historic cultural heritage.  Azerbaijan haes diplomatic relations wi 158 kinrtas sae far an haulds membership in 38 internaitional organisations. Azerbaijan is ane o the foondin members o GUAM an the Organisation for the Prohibition o Chemical Weapons, an jynt the Commonwealth o Independent States in September 1993. On 9 Mey 2006 Azerbaijan wis electit tae membership in the newly established Human Richts Council bi the Unitit Naitions General Assembly. The term o office began on 19 Juin 2006. A Special Envoy o the European Commission is present in the kintra, which is an' a' a member o the Unitit Naitions, the OSCE, the Council o Europe, an the NATO Partnership for Peace (PfP) program. The kintra an aa haulds observer status in the Non-Aligned Movement an Warld Tred Organisation an is a correspondent at the Internaitional Telecommunication Union.

The name o Azerbaijan derives frae Atropates, a Persian satrap unner the Achaemenid Empire, that wis later reinstatit as the satrap o Media unner Alexander the Great. The oreeginal etymology o this name is thocht tae hae its roots in the auncient Iranian releegion o Zoroastrianism. In the Avesta, Frawardin Yasht (Hymn tae the Guardian Angels), thare is a mention o âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide, which literally translates frae Avestan as we worship the Fravashi o the holy Atare-pata.

Atropates ruled ower the region o Atropatene (present-day Iranian Azerbaijan). The name Atropates itself is the Greek transliteration o an Auld-Iranian, probably Median, compoondit name wi the meanin Protectit bi the (Holy) Fire. The Greek name is mentioned bi Diodorus Siculus an Strabo, an it is continued as ādurbādagān in the Middle Persian geographical text Shahrestānihā i Erānshahr. The wird is translatable as baith the treasury an the treasurer o fire in Modren Persian.




#Article 353: Croatie (480 words)


Croatie ( ), offeecially the Republic o Croatie (, ), is a kintra at the mairch o Central an Sootheast Europe, on the Adriatic Sea. Its caipital Zagreb forms ane o the kintra's primar subdiveesions, alang wi twenty coonties. Croatie haes an aurie o  an a population o 4.28 million, maist o whom are Roman Catholics.

The Croats arrived in the aurie in the 6t century. Thay organised the state intae twa duchies bi the 9t century. Tomislav becam the first king bi 925, elevatin Croatie tae the status o a kinrick. The Kinrick o Croatie retained its sovereignty for nearly twa centuries, reachin its peak in the rule o Kings Petar Krešimir IV an Dmitar Zvonimir. Croatie entered a personal union wi Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced wi Ottoman conquest, the Croatie Pairlament electit Ferdinand I o the Hoose o Habsburg tae the Croatie throne. In the early 19th century, pairts o the kintra war split intae the French Illyrian Provinces while Austrick-Hungary occupied its Bosnie an Herzegovinae side–a dispute settled bi the 1878 Treaty o Berlin. In 1918, efter Warld War I, Croatie wis included in the unrecognised State o Slovenes, Croats an Serbs that secedit frae Austrick-Hungary an merged intae the Kinrick o Yugoslavie. Follaeing the Axis invasion o Yugoslavie, maist o the Croatie territory wis incorporatit intae the Nazi-backed client-state that led tae the development o a resistance muivement an creaution o the Federal State o Croatie that efter the war acome a foondin member an a federal constituent o the Socialist Federal Republic o Yugoslavie. On 25 Juin 1991, Croatie declared unthirldom, that cam halely intae effect on 8 October o the same year. The Croatie War o Unthirldom wis focht successfully for fower year follaein the declaration.

Croatie is a republic govrened unner a pairlamentar seestem an a developit kintra wi a verra heich staundart o leevin. Croatie is a member o the European Union (EU), Unitit Naitions (UN), the Cooncil o Europe, NATO, the Warld Tred Organisation (WTO), an a foondin member o the Union for the Mediterranean. As an active pairteecipant in the UN peacekeepin forces, Croatie haes contreibutit truips tae the NATO-led mission in Afghanistan an teuk a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Cooncil for the 2008–2009 term. Syne 2000, the Croatie govrenment haes constantly investit in infrastructur, especially transport routes an facilities alang the Pan-European corridors.

Croatie's economy is dominatit bi service an industrial sectors an agricultur. Tourism is a signeeficant soorce o revenue, wi Croatie rankit amang tap 20 maist popular tourist destinations in the warld. The state controls a pairt o the economy, wi substantial govrenment expenditur. The European Union is Croatie's maist important treddin pairtner. Croatie provides a social siccarity, universal heal care seestem, an a tuition-free primar an seicontar eddication, while supportin cultur throu numerous public institutions an corporate investments in media an publishin.




#Article 354: Denmark (202 words)


Denmark () is a Scandinavie kintra in Northren Europe. The kintras o Denmark an Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kinrick o Denmark. It is the soothmaist o the Nordic kintras, soothwast o Swaden an sooth o Norawa, an bordered tae the sooth bi Germany. Denmark borders baith the Baltic an the North Sea. The kintra consists o a muckle peninsulae, Jutland (Jylland) an mony islands, maist notably Zealand (Sjælland), Funen (Fyn), Vendsyssel-Thy (commonly considered a pairt o Jutland), Lolland, Falster an Bornholm, as well as hunders o minor islands aften referred tae as the Dens Airchipelago. Denmark haes lang controlled the approach tae the Baltic Sea (dominium maris baltici); afore the diggin o the Kiel Canal, watter passage tae the Baltic Sea wis possible anerlie throu the three channels kent as the Dens straits.

Denmark is a constitutional monarchy wi a Pairlamentary seestem o govrenment. It haes a state-level govrenment an local govrenments in 98 municipalities. Denmark haes been a member o the European Union syne 1973, awtho it haes no joined the Eurozone. A foondin member o NATO an the OECD, it is an aw a member o the Organisation for Security an Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).




#Article 355: Greece (516 words)


Greece (Greek: Ελλάδα or Ελλάς), kent offeecially as the Hellenic Republic (Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία) is a kintra in sooth-eastren Europe, wi a population o approximately  million as o . Athens is the naition's caipital an largest ceety, follaed bi Thessaloniki.

Greece is locatit at the crossroads o Europe, Asie, an Africae. Situatit on the soothren tip o the Balkan Peninsula, it shares laund mairches wi Albanie tae the northwast, North Macedonie an Bulgarie tae the north, an Turkey tae the northeast. The Aegean Sea lies tae the east o the mainland, the Ionian Sea tae the wast, the Cretan Sea an the Mediterranean Sea tae the sooth. Greece haes the langest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin an the 11t langest coastline in the warld at  in lenth, featurin a muckle nummer o islands, o that 227 are inhabitit. Aichty percent o Greece is muntainous, wi Munt Olympus bein the heichest peak at . The kintra consists o nine geografic regions: Macedonie, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands (includin the Dodecanese an Cyclades), Thrace, Crete, an the Ionian Islands.

Greece is conseedert the cradle o Wastren ceevilisation, bein the birthplace o democracy, Wastren filosofie, Wastren leeteratur, historiografie, poleetical science, major scienteefic an mathematical principles, an Wastren drama, as weel as the Olympic Gemmes. Frae the aicht century BC, the Greeks war organised intae various independent ceety-states, kent as poleis (seengular polis), that spanned the entire Mediterranean region an the Black Sea. Philip o Macedon unitit maist o the Greek mainland in the fowert century BC, wi his son Alexander the Great rapidly conquerin muckle o the auncient warld, spreidin Greek cultur an science frae the eastren Mediterranean tae Indie. Greece wis annexed bi Roum in the seicont century BC, acomin an integral pairt o the Roman Empire an its successor, the Byzantine Empire, whaurin the Greek leid an cultur war dominant. The Greek Orthodox Kirk an aw shapit modren Greek identity an transmittit Greek tradeetions tae the wider Orthodox Warld. Fawin unner Ottoman domeenion in the mid-15t century, the modren naition state o Greece emerged in 1830 follaein a war o unthirldom. Greece's rich historical legacy is reflectit bi its 18 UNESCO Warld Heritage Steids, amang the maist in Europe an the warld.

Greece is a democratic an developit kintra wi an advanced heich-income economy, a heich quality o life, an a verra heich staundart o leevin. A foondin member o the Unitit Naitions, Greece wis the tent member tae jyne the European Commonties (precursor tae the European Union) an haes been pairt o the Eurozone syne 2001. It is an aw a member o numerous ither international institutions, includin the Cooncil o Europe, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation an Development (OECD), the Warld Tred Organisation (WTO), the Organisation for Siccarity an Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), an the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF). Greece's unique cultural heritage, muckle tourism industry, prominent shippin sector an geostrategic importance clessifee it as a middle pouer. It is the lairgest economy in the Balkans, whaur it is an important regional investor.




#Article 356: Iceland (597 words)


Iceland ( ) is a Nordic island kintra in the North Atlantic, wi a population o  and an aurie o , makkin it the maist sparsely populatit kintra in Europe. The caipital an lairgest ceety is Reykjavík. Reykjavík an the surroondin auries in the soothwast o the kintra are hame tae ower twa-thirds o the population.

Iceland is volcanically an geologically active. The interior conseests o a plateau chairactereesit bi sand an lava fields, muntains, an glaciers, an mony glacial rivers flowe tae the sea throu the lawlands. Iceland is wairmed bi the Gulf Stream an haes a temperate climate, despite a heich latitude juist ootside the Arctic Circle. Its heich latitude an marine influence keep simmers chilly, wi maist o the archipelago haein a tundra climate.

Accordin tae the auncient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement o Iceland begoud in 874 AD whan the Norse chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson becam the first permanent settler on the island. In the follaein centuries, Norses, an tae a lesser extent ither Scandinavies, emigratit tae Iceland, bringin wi them thirls (i.e., sclaves or serfs) o Gaelic oreegin. The island wis govrened as an independent commonweel unner the Althing, ane o the warld's auldest functionin legislative assemmlies. Follaein a period o ceevil strife, Iceland accedit tae Norse rule in the 13t century. The establishment o the Kalmar Union in 1397 unitit the kinricks o Norawa, Denmark, an Swaden. Iceland sicweys follaed Norawa's integration tae that union an cam unner Dens rule, efter Swaden's secession frae that union in 1523. Awtho the Dens kinrick introduced Lutheranism forcefully in 1550, Iceland remeened a distant semi-colonial territory in that Dens institutions an infrastructurs war conspeecuous bi thair absence. In the wauk o the French Revolution an the Napoleonic Wars, Iceland's struggle for unthirldom teuk form an culminatit in untirldom in 1918 an the foondin o a republic in 1944. Till the 20t century, Iceland relied lairgely on subsistence fishin an agricultur, an wis amang the puirest kintra in Europe. Industrialisation o the fisheries an Marshall Plan aid follaein Warld War II brocht prosperity, an Iceland becam ane o the walthiest an maist developit naitions in the warld. In 1994, it becam a pairt o the European Economic Aurie, that forder diversifee'd the economy intae sectors sic as finance, biotechnology, an manufacturin.

Iceland haes a mercat economy wi relatively law taxes, compared tae ither OECD kintras. It mainteens a Nordic social welfare seestem that provides universal heal care an tertiary eddication for its ceetizens. Iceland ranks heich in economic, poleetical, an social stabeelity an equality. In 2016, it wis rankit as the nint maist developit kintra in the warld bi the Unitit Naitions' Human Development Index, an it ranks first on the Global Peace Index. Iceland runs awmaist completely on renewable energy. Affectit bi the ongaein warldwide financial creesis, the naition's entire bankin seestem seestemically failed in October 2008, leadin tae a severe depression, substantial poleetical unrest, the Icesave dispute, an the institution o caipital controls. Some bankers war jyled. Syne then, the economy haes made a signeeficant recovery, in lairge pairt due tae a surge in tourism.

Icelandic cultur is foondit upon the naition's Scandinavian heritage. Maist Icelanders are descendants o Norse an Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic leid, is descendit frae Auld Wast Norse an is closely relatit tae Faroese an Wast Norse dialects. The kintra's cultural heritage includes tradeetional Icelandic cuisine, Icelandic leeteratur, an medieval sagas. Iceland haes the smawest population o ony NATO member an is the anerly ane wi na staundin airmy, wi a lichtly airmed coast gaird in chairge o defence.




#Article 357: Barcelona (118 words)


Barcelona (, , ) is the caipital ceety o the autonomous commonty o Catalonie in Spain, an the seicont lairgest ceety in the kintra, wi a population o 1,620,943 athin its admeenistrative limits. The urban area o Barcelona extends ayont the admeenistrative ceety limits wi a population o aroond 4.5 million, bein the saxt-maist populous urban areas in the European Union efter Paris, Lunnon, Ruhr, Madrid an Milan. Aboot five million fowk live in the Barcelona metropolitan area. It is the lairgest metropolis on the Mediterranean Sea an aw. It is locatit on the Mediterranean coast atween the mooths o the rivers Llobregat an Besòs an is boondit tae the wast bi the Serra de Collserola ridge ().




#Article 358: North Macedonie (106 words)


The Republic o North Macedonie (Macedonie: Република Северна Македонија, Republika Severna Makedonija), juist kent as North Macedonie an aw, is a laundlockit kintra in the Balkans region o Sooth-Wastren Europe. It is laund mairched wi Kosovo tae the North, Albanie tae the Wast, Greece tae the Sooth an wi Bulgarie tae the east. Efter a tuilyie ower the uiss o the name o Macedonie a greement wis made bi the Unitit Naitions in 1993 an the kintra gaed unner the name o Umwhile Yugoslav Republic o Macedonie.

In 2018, folliein a greement wi Greece, the kintra has chynged its name tae the Republic o North Macedonie.




#Article 359: Moldovae (119 words)


Moldovae (Moldovae: Moldova) kent offeecially as the Republic o Moldovae (Moldovae: Republica Moldova) is a wee laundlockit kintra in Eastren Europe atween the Ukraine tae the Sooth-East an Romanie tae the Wast. Historically it wis pairt o the Preencipality o Moldovae fae the 1300's, annexed bi the Roushie Empire in 1812 bi' the Ottoman Empire (Tae wheech Moldovae wis a vassal state) an becum kent as Bessarabia. in 1856 soothren Bessarabia wis returned tae Moldovae an three yeirs latter it unitit wi the ither Romanie laund o' Wallachie in 1918. Efter chyngin hauns durin WWII it becam pairt o the Soviet Union an frae 1945 tae 1991 it wis cried Moldovae SSR. It feenally becam independant in August 1991.




#Article 360: Montenegro (107 words)


Montenegro (Montenegrin: Црна Гора or Crna Gora) is a kintra in Sooth-Eastren Europe. It haes a coast tae the sooth on the Adriatic Sea. It is laund mairched wi Croatie tae the Wast, Bosnie an Herzegovinae tae the North-Wast, Serbie tae the North-East an wi Albanie tae the Sooth-East. Its caipital city is Podgorica. It wis independent frae the meedle ages tae 1918 whan it wis than pairt o aw the different states o the auld Yugoslavie. It syne gaed intae a state union wi Serbie for tae mak the kintra o Serbie an Montenegro. Syne Juin 2006 it haes been a kintra in its ain richt.




#Article 361: Labour Pairty (UK) (115 words)


The Labour Pairty is ane o the muckle poleitical pairtys o the Unitit Kinrick. It is the opposition pairty in the Wastmeenster Pairlament o the Unitit Kinrick the nou. The heidsman is Heidsman o the Opposition o the Unitit Kinrick, Keir Starmer. He is efter Jeremy Corbyn, whae wis efter Ed Milliband, whae wis efter Gordon Brown, whae wis efter Tony Blair whae wis the first Prime Meenister frae the pairty tae hiv haed three consecutive terms in govrenment.

In Scotland, it is cried the Scots Labour Pairty. It uised tae lead the hame rule opposition tae the SNP, but hae syne been replaced wi the Tory an Unionist Pairty. Its heidsman is Richard Leonard. 




#Article 362: Portugal (687 words)


Portugal, offeecially the Portuguese Republic ( ), is a sovereign state locatit maistly on the Iberian Peninsula in soothwastren Europe. It is the wastrenmaist kintra o mainland Europe, mairchit tae the wast an sooth bi the Atlantic Ocean an tae the north an east bi Spain. Its territory an aw includes the Atlantic airchipelagaes o the Azores an Madeira, baith autonomous regions wi thair awn regional govrenments.

Portugal is the auldest state in the Iberian Peninsula an ane o the auldest in Europe, its territory haein been conteenously settled, invadit an focht ower syne prehistoric times. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians an Romans war follaed bi the invasions o the Visigoths an Suebi Germanic fowks. Portugal as a kintra wis established in the Christian Reconquista against the Moors that haed invadit the Iberian Peninsula in 711 AD. Despite attempts at unthirldom syne its foondation as a coonty in 868, anerly efter the Battle o São Mamede in 1128, whaur Portuguese forces led bi Afonso Henriques defeatit forces led bi his mither, Theresa o Portugal, the Coonty o Portugal affirmed its sovereignty an Afonso Henriques styled himsel Prince o Portugal. He wad later be proclaimed Keeng o Portugal at the Battle o Ourique in 1139 an wis recognised as sic bi neighbouring kinricks in 1143.

In the 15t an 16t centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, acomin ane o the warld's major economic, poleetical an militar pouers. In this period, the day referred tae as the Age o Diskivery, Portuguese explorers pioneered maritime exploration, notably unner ryal patronage o Prince Henry the Navigator an King John II, wi sic notable voyages as Bartolomeu Dias' sailin ayont the Cape o Guid Howp (1488), Vasco da Gama's diskivery o the sea route tae Indie (1497–98) an the European diskivery o Brazil (1500). In this time, Portugal monopolised the spice tred, an the empire expandit wi militar campaigns in Asie. Houiver, events sic as the destruction o Lisbon in a 1755 yirdquauk, the kintra's occupation in the Napoleonic Wars, an the unthirldom o Brazil (1822), left Portugal crippelt frae war an diminished in its warld pouer.

Efter the 1910 revolution deponed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic wis established, later bein supersedit bi the Estado Novo richt-weeng authoritarian regime. Democracy wis restored efter the Carnation Revolution in 1974, endin the Portuguese Colonial War. Shortly efter, unthirldom wis grantit tae awmaist aw its owerseas territories. The haundower o Macau tae Cheenae in 1999 merkit the end o whit can be conseedert the langest-leeved colonial empire. Portugal haes left a profoond cultural an airchitectural influence athort the globe, a legacy o 300 million Portuguese speakers, an mony Portuguese-based creoles. A member o the Unitit Naitions an the European Union, Portugal wis an aw ane o the foondin members of NATO, the eurozone, the OECD, an the Community o Portuguese Leid Kintras.

Portugal is a developit kintra wi a heicch-income advanced economy, a developed mercat, an heich leevin staundarts. It is ranked heichly in terms o LGBTI richts (6t in Europe), press freedom (14t), social progress (20t) an prosperity (25t). Wi its poleetical stability an law crime rates, it is rankit as the maist peacefu kintra in the EU an the 3rd in the warld. Addeetionally, it is a sustainable state, mainteenin a unitar semi-presidential republic, a strang rule o law, an the lawest levels o corruption in soothren Europe. Portugal ranks abuin the OECD average in mathematics, science, an readin, haein been the kintra wi the maist expressive positive evolution ootthrou PISA's studies. Awtho a Catholic-majority kintra for maist o its history, modren Portugal is a secular state wi ane o the warld's heichest rates o moral freedom. It wis the first kintra tae abolish life impreesonment an ane o the earliest tae abolish caipital punishment. Practices sic as abortion, same-sex marriage an adoption, medically assisted insemination for single weemen an lesbian couples, an altruistic surrogacy hae been legalised. In 2001, Portugal becam the first kintra in the warld tae decriminalise the possession an consumption o aw illeecit drogs, focusin on treatment an hairm reduction, wi signeeficant public heal gains.




#Article 363: Romanie (381 words)


Romania ( ) is a sovereign state locatit in Sootheastren Europe. It mairches the Black Sea, Bulgarie, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbie, an Moldovae. It haes an aurie o  an a temperate-continental climate. Wi awmaist 20 million indwallers, the kintra is the seivent maist populous member state o the European Union. Its caipital an lairgest ceety, Bucharest, is the saxt-lairgest ceety in the EU, wi 1,883,425 indwallers as o 2011.

The River Danube, Europe's seicont-langest river, rises in Germany an flowes in a general sootheast direction for , coorsin throu ten kintras afore emptyin intae Romanie's Danube Delta. The Carpathian Moontains, that cross Romanie frae the north tae the soothwast, include Moldoveanu, at .

Modren Romanie wis formed in 1859 throu a personal union o the Danubian Principalities o Moldavie an Wallachie. The new state, offeecially named Romanie syne 1866, gained unthirldom frae the Ottoman Empire in 1877. At the end o Warld War I, Transylvanie, Bukovina an Bessarabie unitit wi the sovereign Kinrick o Romanie. In Warld War II, Romanie wis an ally o Nazi Germany against the Soviet Union, fechtin side bi side wi the Wehrmacht till 1944, whan it jyned the Allied pouers an faced occupation bi the Reid Airmy forces. Romanie lost several territories, o that Northren Transylvanie wis regained efter the war. Follaein the war, Romanie becam a socialist republic an member o the Warsaw Pact. Efter the 1989 Revolution, Romanie begoud a transeetion taewart democracy an a caipitalist mercat economy.

Romanie is a developin kintra an ane o the puirest in the European Union, rankin 50t in the Human Development Index, awtho as o 2017 its economy is growin at an estimatit annual rate o 5%, tied wi Maltae for the heichest in the EU. Follaein rapid economic growthe in the early 2000s, Romanie haes an economy predominantly based on services, an is a producer an net exporter o machines an electric energy, featurin companies lik Automobile Dacia an OMV Petrom. It haes been a member o NATO syne 2004, an pairt o the European Union syne 2007. A strang majority o the population identifee themsels as Eastren Orthodox Christians an are native speakers o Romanie, a Romance leid. The cultural history o Romanie is eften referred tae whan dealin wi influential airtists, muisickers, inventors, an sportsfowk.




#Article 364: San Marino (950 words)


San Marino, kent offeecially as the Maist Serene Republic o San Marino (Italian: Serenissima Repubblica di San Marino) is a kintra situatit on the eastren side o the Apennine Mountains. It is an enclave, in Italy. Its size is juist ower 61 km2 (24 sq mi) wi an estimatit population o amaist 30,000. Its caipital is the Ceety o San Marino. Ane o the European microstates, alang wi Liechtenstein, the Vatican, Monaco, Andorrae, an Maltae, San Marino haes the smawest population o aw the members o the Council o Europe.

San Marino is the auldest survivin sovereign state an constitutional republic in the warld, as the continuation o the monastic community foondit on 3 September 301, bi stonecutter Marinus o Arbe. Legend haes it that Marinus left Rab, then the Roman colony o Arba, in 257 when the future emperor, Diocletian, issued a decree cawin for the reconstruction o the ceety walls o Rimini, which haed been destroyed bi Liburnian pirates.

The constitution o San Marino, enactit in 1600, is the warld's auldest constitution still in effect. The kintra's economy mainly relies on tourism, an San Marino's cultur remains Italian, mainly Emilia-Romagnan in essence. It is ane o the wealthiest kintras in the warld in terms o GDP (per capita), wi a figure comparable tae some o the mair developed Italian regions, sic as Lombardy an the Province o Bolzano-Bozen. San Marino is considered tae hae a hichtlit stable economy, wi the lawest unemployment rate in Europe, nae naitional debt an a budget surplus.

Accordin tae tradeetion, Saunt Marinus left the island o Rab in present-day Croatie wi his lifelang friend Leo, an went tae the ceety o Rimini as a mason. Efter the Diocletianic Persecution follaein his Christian sermons, he escaped tae the nearby Monte Titano, whaur he biggit a sma kirk an sicweys foondit what is nou the ceety an state o San Marino. The offeecial date o foondation o the Republic is 3 September 301.

Bi the mid-5t century, a community wis formed; acause o its relatively inaccessible location an its poverty, it haes succeeded, wi a few brief interruptions, in maintainin its unthirldom. In 1631, its unthirldom wis recognised bi the Papacy.

The advance o Napoleon's airmy in 1797 presentit a brief threat tae the unthirldom o San Marino, but the kintra wis spared its leeberty thanks tae ane o its Regents, Antonio Onofri, who managed tae gain the respect an friendship o Napoleon. Thanks tae his intervention, Napoleon, in a letter delivered tae Gaspard Monge, scientist an commissary o the French Govrenment for Science an Airt, promised tae guarantee an pertect the unthirldom o the Republic, afferin tae extend its territory accordin tae its needs. The affer wis declined bi San Marino, fearin tae provoke future revanchism that might threaten its freedom.

During the later phase o the Italian unification process in the 19t century, San Marino served as a refuge for mony fowk persecutit acause o thair support for unification. In recognition o this support, Giuseppe Garibaldi acceptit the wish o San Marino no tae be incorporatit intae the new Italian state.

The govrenment o San Marino made Unitit States Preses Abraham Lincoln an honorary ceetizen. He wrote in reply, sayin that the republic proved that government foondit on republican principles is capable o being so administered as tae be secure an endurin.

Durin Warld War I, when Italy declared war on Austrick-Hungary on 23 Mey 1915, San Marino remained neutral an Italy adoptit a hostile view o Sammarinese neutrality, suspectin that San Marino coud harbor Austrian spies who coud be gien access tae its new radiotelegraph station. Italy tried tae forcibly establish a detachment o Carabinieri in the Republic an then cut the Republic's telephone lines when it did no comply. Twa groups o ten volunteers did, housomeivver, jyne Italian forces in the fechtin on the Italian front, the first as combatants an the seicont as a Medical Corps operatin a Reid Cross field hospital. The existence o this hospital later caused Austrick-Hungary tae suspend diplomatic relations wi San Marino.

Frae 1923 tae 1943, San Marino wis unner the rule o the Sammarinese Fascist Pairty (PFS).

During Warld War II, San Marino remained neutral, awtho it haed been wrongly reportit on tae hae declared war on the United Kinrick on 17 September 1940.

Three days efter the faw o Benito Mussolini in Italy, PFS rule collapsed an the new govrenment declared neutrality in the conflict. The Fascists regained pouer on 1 Aprile 1944 but kept neutrality intact. Despite that, on 26 Juin 1944 San Marino wis bombed bi the Ryal Air Force, which mistakenly believed that the kinntra haed been owerrun bi German forces and wis bein uised tae amass stores an ammunition. At least 35 fowk wur killed in the operation. San Marino acceptit thoosans o civilian refugees when Allied forces went ower the Gothic Line. In September 1944, it wis briefly occupied bi German forces, who wur attackt bi Allied forces in the Battle o San Marino. Allied troops wi'drew frae the kintra shortly efterward.

The heid o state is a committee (council) o twa captains-regent. San Marino haed the warld's first democratically electit communist govrenment, which held office atween 1945 an 1957 an again atween 2006 an 2008.

San Marino is the warld's smallest republic, awtho when Nauru gained unthirldom in 1968 it challenged that claim, Nauru's land mass bein anly . Houiver Nauru's jurisdiction ower its surroondin waters (431,000 km2) is thousands o times greater than the territory o San Marino.

San Marino became a member o the Council o Europe in 1988 an o the Unitit Nations in 1992. It is no a member o the European Union.




#Article 365: Slovakie (406 words)


Slovakie ( ), offeecially the Slovak Republic (, ), is a laundlocked kintra in Central Europe. It is mairchit bi Poland tae the north, Ukraine tae the east, the Czech Republic tae the wast, Hungary tae the sooth, an Austrick tae the soothwast. Slovakie's territory spans aboot  an is maistly mountainous. The population is ower 5.4 million an consists maistly o Slovaks. The caipital an lairgest ceety is Bratislava, seicont lairgest ceety is Košice. The offeecial leid is Slovak.

The Slavs arrived in the territory o present-day Slovakie in the 5t an 6t centuries. In the 7t century, they played a signeeficant role in the creation o Samo's Empire an in the 9t century established the Principality o Nitra. In the 10t century, the territory wis integratit intae the Kinrick o Hungary. Efter Warld War I an the dissolution o the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Slovaks an Czechs established Czechoslovakie (1918–1939). A separate (First) Slovak Republic (1939–1945) exeestit in Warld War II as a client state o Nazi Germany. In 1945, Czechoslovakie wis re-established an unner Communist rule becam a Soviet satellite. In 1989, the Velvet Revolution endit Communist rule in Czechoslovakie. Slovakie becam an independent state on 1 Januar 1993 efter the peacefu dissolution o Czechoslovakie, whiles kent as the Velvet Divorce.

Slovakie is a heich-income advanced economy wi a verra heich Human Development Index, a verra heich staundart o leevin an performs favourably in measurements o ceevil leeberties, press freedom, internet freedom, democratic govrenance an peacefuness. The kintra mainteens a combination o mercat economy wi a comprehensive social siccarity seestem. Ceetizens o Slovakie are providit wi universal heal care, free eddication an ane o the langest paid maternity leave in the OECD. The kintra jynt the European Union in 2004 an the Eurozone on 1 Januar 2009. Slovakie is an aw a member o the Schengen Aurie, NATO, the Unitit Naitions, the OECD, the WTO, CERN, the OSCE, the Cooncil o Europe an the Visegrád Group. Awtho regional income inequality is heich, 90% o ceetizens awn thair hames. In 2018, Slovak ceetizens haed visa-free or visa-on-arrival access tae 167 kintras an territories, rankingthe Slovak passport 12t in the warld. Slovakie is the warld’s lairgest per-capita car producer wi a tot o 1,040,000 caurs manufacturt in the kintra in 2016 alane an the 7t lairgest caur producer in the European Union. The caur industrie represents 43% o Slovakie's industrial ootput, an a quarter o its exports.




#Article 366: Swisserland (101 words)


Swisserland (German: die Schweiz, French: la Suisse, Italian: Svizzera, Romansh: Svizra, Laitin: Helvetica), kent offeecially the Swiss Confederation (German: Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, French: Confédération Suisse, Italian: Confederazione Svizzera an Romansh: Confederaziun Svizra, Laitin: Confoederatio Helvetica), is an Alpine kintra in Central Europe. It is landlockit an haes the neebours Germany tae the North, Fraunce tae the Wast, Italy tae the Sooth an Austrick an Liechtenstein tae the East. Historically it wis a Confederation but syne 1848 it haes been a Federation. It haes a strang economy in finance an baunkin an haes a lang history o bein neutral baith poleetical an meelitar.




#Article 367: Ukraine (745 words)


Ukraine ( ), whiles cried the Ukraine, is a sovereign state in Eastren Europe, mairchit bi Roushie tae the east an northeast; Belaroushie tae the northwast; Poland, Hungary, an Slovakie tae the wast; Romanie an Moldovae tae the soothwast; an the Black Sea an Sea o Azov tae the sooth an sootheast, respectively. Ukraine is currently in a territorial dispute wi Roushie ower the Crimean Peninsula, that Roushie annexed in 2014 but that Ukraine an maist o the internaitional commonty recognise as Ukrainian. Includin Crimea, Ukraine haes an aurie o , makkin it the mucklest kintra entirely within Europe an the 46t mucklest kintra in the warld. Excludin Crimea, Ukraine haes a population o aboot 42.5 million, makkin it the 32nt maist populous kintra in the warld.

The territory o modren Ukraine haes been inhabitit syne 32,000 BC. In the Middle Ages, the aurie wis a key centre o East Slavic cultur, wi the pouerfu state o Kievan Rus' formin the basis o Ukrainian identity. Follaein its fragmentation in the 13t century, the territory wis contestit, ruled an dividit bi a variety o pouers, includin Lithuanie, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austrick-Hungary, an Roushie. A Cossack republic emerged an prospered in the 17t an 18t centuries, but its territory wis eventually split atween Poland an the Roushie Empire, an later merged fully intae Roushie.

In the 20t century three periods o unthirldom occurred. The first o thir periods occurred briefly in an immediately efter the German occupation near the end o Warld War I an the seicont occurred, an aa briefly, an an aa in German occupation, in Warld War II. Houiver, baith o thir first twa earlier periods wad eventually see Ukraine's territories consolidatit back intae a Soviet republic within the USSR. The third period o unthirldom begoud in 1991, whan Ukraine gained its unthirldom frae the Soviet Union in the eftermath o its dissolution at the end o the Cauld War. Ukraine haes maintained its unthirldom as a sovereign state iver syne. Afore its unthirldom, Ukraine wis teepically referred tae as The Ukraine, but soorces syne then hae muived tae drap the frae the name o Ukraine in aw uises.

Follaein its unthirldom, Ukraine declared itsel a neutral state. Nanetheless it formed a leemitit militar pairtnership wi the Roushie Federation an ither CIS kintras an a pairtnership wi NATO in 1994. In the 2000s, the govrenment begoud leanin taewart NATO, an a deeper cooperation wi the alliance wis set bi the NATO-Ukraine Action Plan signed in 2002. It wis later agreed that the quiasten o jynin NATO shoud be answered bi a naitional referendum at some pynt in the futur. Umwhile Preses Viktor Yanukovych conseedert the current level o co-operation atween Ukraine an NATO sufficient, an wis against Ukraine jynin NATO. In 2013, efter the govrenment o Preses Yanukovych ha decidit tae suspend the Ukraine-European Union Association Greement an seek closer economic ties wi Roushie, a several-months-lang wave o demonstrations an protests kent as the Euromaidan begoud, that later escalatit intae the 2014 Ukrainian revolution that led tae the owerthraw o Preses Yanukovych an his cabinet an the establishment o a new govrenment. Thir events formed the backgrund for the annexation o Crimea bi Roushie in Mairch 2014, an the War in Donbass in Apryle 2014. On 1 Januar 2016, Ukraine applee'd the economic pairt o the Deep an Comprehensive Free Tred Aurie wi the European Union.

Ukraine haes lang been a global breidbasket acause o its extensive, growthie fermlands an is ane o the warld's mucklest grain exporters. The diversified economy o Ukraine includes a muckle hivy industry sector, pairteecularly in aerospace an industrial equipment.

Ukraine is a unitar republic unner a semi-presidential seestem wi separate pouers: legislative, executive an judicial brainches. Its caipital an mucklest ceety is Kiev. Takkin intae accoont reserves an paramilitar personnel, Ukraine mainteens the seicont-mucklest military in Europe efter that o Roushie. The kintra is hame tae 42.5 million fowk (excludin Crimea), 77.8 percent o that are Ukrainians bi ethnicity, follaed bi a sizeable minority o Roushies (17.3 percent) as weel as Georgies, Romanies/Moldovans, Belaroushies, Crimean Tatars, Bulgaries an Hungarians. Ukrainian is the offeecial leid an its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant releegion in the kintra is Eastren Orthodoxy, that haes strangly influenced Ukrainian airchitectur, leeteratur an muisic. It is a member o the Unitit Naitions syne its foondin, the Cooncil o Europe, OSCE, GUAM, an ane o the foondin states o the Commonweel o Independent States (CIS).




#Article 368: The Lord o the Rings (113 words)


The Lord o the Rings is an epic hie fantasy novelle written bi Inglis academic J. R. R. Tolkien. The story begoud as a sequel tae Tolkien's afore gaun fantasy beuk The Hobbit an suin a hale bit lairger story. It wis written in stages atween 1937 an 1949, wi a guid bit o it bein shaped durin the Seicont Warld War. It wis oreeginally setten furth in three vollums in 1954 an 1955 (muckle tae Tolkien's annoyance, sin he haed mynt it tae be a single vollum), an haes syne been reprentit mony times an pitten ower intae at least 38 leids, becomin ane o the maist weel-likit warks in 20t-century Leeteratur.




#Article 369: Keeng Arthur (108 words)


King Arthur wis an important feegur in the meethology o Great Breetain, whaur he appears tae be the ideal o kingship baith in war an peace. He is the central chairacter in the cycle o legends kent as the Maiter o Breetain. Thare's an argiement aboot whither Arthur, or a model for him, iver actually wis aboot. In the earliest mentions an in Welsh texts, he is niver gien the name 'King'. An early text refers tae him as a dux bellorum ('war leader'), an auld Welsh texts aften cries him ameraudur (emperor; the wird is lent frae the Laitin imperator that coud mean war leader) an aw.




#Article 370: Norman leid (529 words)


Norman or Norman French (Mainland Norman: Normaund, French: Normand, Guernésiais: Normand, Jèrriais: Nouormand) is aither a French byleid or a Romance leid an yin o the Oïl leids alang wi French, Picard, an Walloon.

Whan Vikings fae modren day Denmark, Norawa, Swaden, an Iceland wun tae the auld province o Neustria an sattelt the laund that becam kent as Normandy, thir Germanic spikkin fowk cam tae bide amang a local Romance spikkin group. In time, the commonties cam thegither, sae that the name Normandy wis keept bit the springheid Normans war assimilatit by the Gallo-Romance fowk, taen thair speech. Later, whan ower halin Ingland, the Norman rulers woud hinderly assimilate, thareby taen the speech o the local Inglis fowk. Houaniver, in baith cases, the elites contreebutit pairts o thair ain leid tae the newly makkit leids that developit in thair reenges.

In Normandy, the Norman leid heirt ainly aboot 150 wirds fae Auld Norse. The influence on phonologie is disputit, awtho hit is argied that the haudin o aspiratit /h/ an /k/ in Norman is fae Norse influence.

Norman is spakken in mainland Normandy in Fraunce, whaur hit haes no offeecial status, bit is clessed as a regional leid. Hit is leart in a puckle colleges naur Cherbourg-Octeville.

In the Channel Islands, the Norman leid haes developit sindry, bit no in isolation, tae mak:

The Breetish an Erse govrenments recognise Jèrriais an Guernésiais as regional leids wi'in the framewark o the Breetish–Erse Cooncil. Sercquiais cam aboot fae the 16t yearhunner Jèrriais uised by the springheid sattlers fae Jersey thit muived tae the island.

The last native spikkers o Auregnais, the byleid spakken on Alderney, dee'd in the 20t yearhunner, awtho some mynders are alive yit. The byleid o Herm dee'd at an unkent date forby.

An isogloss cried the Joret line (ligne Joret) spleets the northren an soothren byleids o the Norman leid.

Three different staundartised spellins are uised: continental Norman, Jèrriais, an Dgèrnésiais. Thir represent the different developments an particular leeterar histories o the varieties o Norman. Norman can tharefore be descrived as a pluricentric leid.

The Anglo-Norman byleid o Norman sert as a leid o admeenistration in Ingland follaein the Norman conquest o Ingland in 1066. This left a legacy o Law French in the leid o Inglis coorts. In Ireland, Norman remeened strangest in the airt o sootheast Ireland, whaur the Hiberno-Normans invadit in 1169. Norman remeens in (limitit) uise fur some gey formal legal purposes in the UK, sic as whan the monarch gies ryal assent tae an Act o Pairlament uisin the rame La Reyne (le Roy) le veult (The Queen (the Keeng) wills hit).

The Norman conquest o soothren Italy in the 11t an 12t yearhunners brocht the leid tae Sicily an the soothren airts o the Italian peninsula, whaur hit left a puckle wirds in the Sicilian leid.

Leeteratur in Norman reenges fae early Anglo-Norman leeteratur throu the 19t yearhunner Norman leeterar writers.

As o 2017, the leid remeens strangest in the less aiccessible airts o the umwhile Duchy o Normandy: the Channel Islands an the Cotentin Peninsula (Cotentinais) in the wast, an the Pays de Caux (Cauchois byleid) in the east.




#Article 371: Norman Finkelstein (146 words)


Norman Finkelstein is a Professor o Poleetical science an a gey controversial feegur in regairds tae the state o Israel. He hissel is the wean o Holocaust survivors, an haes statit on mair nor ain occasion hou serious he regards holocaust denial. Maugre o this, an bein Jewish, he haes been accuised o anti-semetism follaein his creeticism o Israeli policy an offeecial history. In beuks sic as the ane cried Beyond Chutzpah: On the misuse of Anti-Semetism and the abuse of History, he pits forrit the argiement that pro-Israeli, or Zionist writers/defenders/apologists haes uised the fact o the holocaust ceenically for tae blur the negative response tae Israeli policy wi raigards tae Palestinians, an hou the idea o New Anti-Semetism is a Zionist idea an aw, shaped tae ser the Israeli staundin in public opeenion bi garrin cretics feart tae say ocht negative aboot the state.




#Article 372: GNU Free Documentation License (1284 words)


The GNU Free Documentation License (GNU FDL or cutty GFDL) is a copyleft license for free content, designed bi the Free Saftware Foondation (FSF) for the GNU project. It is the coonterpairt tae the GNU GPL that gies readers the same richts tae copy, caw aboot an modifee a wark an requires aw copies an affcomes tae be tae haund unner the same license. Copies can be selt commercial an aw, but if duin in lairger quantities (greater nor 100) nor the oreeginal document or soorce code maun be seen on tae the wark's receepient.

The license wis designed for guidals, textbeuks, ither reference an instructional materials, an documentation that aften gangs alang wi GPL saftware. Houaniver, it can be uised for ony text-based wark, regairdless o subject maiter.  The lairgest project uisin the license is Wikipedia, a general-purpose encyclopaedia, but the license isna awfu popular amang ither projects.

The license explicitly separates ony kynd of Document frae Secondary Sections, which mey nae be integrated wi the Document, but exist as front-matter materials or appendices. Seicontar sections can contain information regarding the author's or publisher's relationship tae the subject matter, but nae ony subject matter itself. While the Document itself is wholly editable, an is essentially covered bi a license equivalent tae (but baith-ways incompatible wi) the GNU General Public License, some o the seicontar sections hae various restrictions designed primarily tae deal wi proper attribution tae previous authors.

Specifically, the authors of prior versions hae tae be acknowledged an certaint invariant sections specified bi the oreeginal author an dealing wi his or her relationship tae the subject matter mey nae be changed. If the material is modified, its title haes tae be changed (unless the prior authors gie permission tae retain the title). The license an aa haes provisions for the handling of front-kiver an back-kiver texts of beuks, as well as for History, Acknowledgements, Dedications an Endorsements sections.

The GFDL requires the ability tae copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or noncommercially an therefore is incompatible wi material that excludes commercial re-use. Material that restricts commercial re-use is incompatible wi the license an canna be incorporated intae the work. Houiver, incorporating sic restricted material mey be fair use unner United States copyright law an daes nae need tae be licensed tae faw within the GFDL if sic fair use is covered bi aw potential subsequent uses. Ane good ensaumple of sic liberal an commercial fair use is parody.

The Debian project an Nathanael Nerode haes raised objection. Debian developers eventually voted tae consider works licensed unner the GFDL tae comply wi thair Debian Free Software Guidelines providit the invariant section clauses are nae uised. Thir critics recommend the use of alternate licenses sic as the share-alike Creative Commons licenses or even the GNU GPL. Thay consider the GFDL a non-free license. The reasons for this are that the GFDL allows invariant text which canna be modified or removed, an that its prohibition against digital rights management (DRM) seestems applies tae valid usages, lik for private copies made and not distributed. 

The GNU FDL conteens the statement:

A criticism of this leid is that it is too broad, acause it applies tae private copies made but nae distributed. This means that a licensee is nae allowed tae save document copies made in a proprietary file format or uisin encryption.

In 2003, Richard Stallman  aboot the abuin sentence on the  mailing leet:

As of 2006, the sentence haes nae yet been clarified.

A GNU FDL wark can quickly be encumbered acause a new, different, title maun be giv'n an a leet o previous titles maun be kept. This coud lead tae the situation whaur thar are a whol series o title peiges, an dedications, in ilka an e'ery copy o the beuk if it haes a lang lineage. Thir peiges cannae e'er be remuived, at least nae until the wark haes enter'd the public domein efter copyricht expires.

Richard Stallman  aboot invariant sections on the  mailin leet:

The GNU FDL is incompatible in baith directions wi the GPL: that is GNU FDL material canna be put intae GPL code an GPL code canna be put intae a GNU FDL manual. Because of this, code samples are eften dual-licensed sae that thay mey appear in documentation an can be incorporated intae a free software program.

At the Juin 22nt an 23rd internaitional GPLv3 conference in Barcelona, Moglen hinted that a future version o the GPL coud be made suitable for documentation:
By expressing LGPL as just an additional permission on top of GPL we simplify our licensing landscape drastically. It's like for physics getting rid of a force, right? We just unified electro-weak, ok? The grand unified field theory still escapes us until the document licences too are just additional permissions on top of GPL. I don't know how we'll ever get there, that's gravity, it's really hard.

The GNU FDL requires that licensees, when prentin a document covered bi the license, must an aa include this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies to the Document. This means that if a licensee prints oot a copy of an article whose text is covered unner the GNU FDL, he or she must an aa include a copyright notice an a physical printout o the GNU FDL, which is a significantly lairge document in itself.

The license haes a preamble, which some critics dislike acause of its ideological tone. Because the preamble is pairt o the license, it must be included (alang wi the rest o the license's text) wi every copy o a licensed document.

The definition o a transparent format is complicated, an mey be difficult tae apply. For ensaumple, drawings are required tae be in a format that allows them tae be revised straightforwardly wi some widely available drawing editor. The definition of widely available mey be difficult tae interpret, an mey chynge ower time, syne, e.g., the open-soorce Inkscape editor is rapidly maturing, but haes nae yet reached version 1.0. This section, which wis rewritten somewhat atween versions 1.1 an 1.2 o the license, uses the terms widely available an proprietary inconsistently an wioot defining them. Accordin tae a strict interpretation o the license, the references tae generic text editors coud be interpreted as ruling oot a format uised bi an open-soorce wird-processor sic as Abiword; accordin tae a loose interpretation, houiver, Microsoft Word .doc format coud qualify as transparent, syne a subset of .doc files can be edited perfectly uisin OpenOffice.org, an the format therefore is nae ane that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors.

The FDL wis released in draft form for feedback in late 1999. Efter revisions, version 1.1 wis issued in Mairch 2000, an version 1.2 in November 2002. The current state o the license is version 1.2.

The first discussion draft o the GNU Free Documentation License version 2 wis released on September 26 2006, alang wi a draft o the new GNU Simpler Free Documentation License.

The new draft o the GNU FDL includes a nummer of improvements, sic as new terms crafted during the GPLv3 process tae improve internationalization, clarifications tae help fowk applying the license tae audio an video, an relaxed requirements for uisin an excerpt frae a work.

The new proposed GNU Simpler Free Documentation License haes no requirements tae maintain Cover Texts an Invariant Sections. This will provide a simpler licensing option for authors who dae nae wish tae use thir features in the GNU FDL.

Some of thir war developed independently o the GNU FDL, while others war developed in response tae perceived flaws in the GNU FDL.




#Article 373: 11 September attacks (152 words)


The 11t September attacks, aften cried 9-11 juist, wis attacks on the Unitit States bi Islamic terrorists on 11t September 2001. Twa hijackit aeroplanes wis flewn intae the World Trade Center, collapsin its twa touers an causin the daiths o aboot 2500 fowk, forby the fowk on the aeroplanes thairsels, aboot five hunner mair. Anither aeroplane wis flewn intae the Pentagon, killin 125 fowk. A fowert plane wis on coorse for the White Hoose in Washington D.C. Houaniver, the passengers in thon plane attackit the hijackers, causin the plane tae crash-laund afore it reached its intendit tairget.

Acause o thir attacks, Preses George W. Bush decidit tae hae Americae lench a warld wide war agin terrorism. At the time al-Qaeda, the fowk ahint the attacks, wis operatin oot o Afghanistan that wis unner the owerins o the Taliban. George Bush invadit Afghanistan for tae pit the branks on al-Qaeda an the Taliban.




#Article 374: Frankfurt (100 words)


Frankfurt is a ceety in Germany, an the biggest ceety in the state o Hesse.

Frankfurt, thegither wi its suburbs, forms the Rhine-Main metropolitan aurie, wi a population jaloused tae be aboot 1.8 million (Frankfurt: 670,000 in 2008). Rhine-Main is ane o the lairgest metropolitan auries in Europe.

The stock exchynge is ane o the lairgest in Europe (Frankfurt stock exchynge).
This, thegither wi its financial an business sectors, haes turned Frankfurt intae ane o the major transportation naves o the warld. Frankfurt is listit as the fowert major global ceety.

Frankfurt twinned wi, or haes sister city relationships with:




#Article 375: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (279 words)


Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, cried Leibnitz or von Leibniz as weel (1 Julie (21 Juin Auld Style) 1646 – 14 November 1716) wis a German scientist that scrieved maistly in French an Latin.

He wis educate in law an philosophy. He wrocht as factotum tae twa muckle German noble hooses (ane becomin the Breetish ryal faimlie at the time he wis wirkin for it). Leibniz haed a muckle role in the European politics an diplomacy o his day. He haes juist as lairge a place baith in the history o philosophy an in the history o mathematics. He inventit calculus at the same time as Newton, an his notation is the ane in general uiss syne. He inventit the binary seestem forby, the foonds o juist aboot aw modren computers.

In philosophy, he is best mynt for optimism. His thocht wis that oor universe is, in ae sense, the best possible that God coud hae made. He wis ane o the great 17th century rationalists. Mony fowk sees René Descartes an Baruch Spinoza as the ither twa. His philosophy leuks back on the Scholastic tradeetion an leuks forrit on modren logic an analysis.

Leibniz made unco contreibutions tae pheesics an technology forby, an anteecipatit concepts that surfaced lang efter in biology, medicine, geology, probability theory, psychology, an information science. He wrate on politics, law, ethics, theology, history, an philology, an aw. Whiles he e'en wrate in verse. His contreebutions tae this muckle array o subjects is scattered in jurnals, in tens o thoosands o letters, an in unpublished manuscripts. As o 2006, thare isna ony complete edeetion o Leibniz's writins, sae a full accoont o his accomplishments isna yet possible.




#Article 376: Scots Pairlament election, 2007 (489 words)


The Scots pairlamentary walin, 2007, wis the thrid general election tae the devolved Scots Pairlament syne it wis creatit in 1999. It teuk place on Thuirsday 3 Mey. The Scots National Pairty bore the gree in the election, winnin the maist seats o onie pairty (47 seats, tae 46 for Labour, the umwhile governin pairty), but no eneuch tae form a majority govrenment or stable coalition, leadin tae the formation o an SNP minority govrenment.

Apairt frae the defeat o Labour bi the SNP, the election wis mairkit bi the faw in support for the smawer pairties: the Scots Socialist Pairty, Solidarity, an the Scottish Senior Citizens Unity Party (Scots Seniour Ceetizen's Unity Pairty) aw tint aw thair seats, while the Scots Green Pairty went frae haein seeven seats tae twa juist.

The walin wis the first uisin consteituencies that arna identical tae consteituencies o the Hoose o Commons. Scots Wastmeinster consteituencies wis replaced wi a new set o consteituencies, fewer in nummer but for normal lairger, in 2005.

The Arbuthnott Commission reportit in Januar 2006, concernin the nummer o votin seestems an electoral divisions in Scotland, but thare wisna be onie chynge tae the Halyeruid election seestem, cept as regairds uiss o vote-coonting machines an the design o the ballot paper, afore the 2007 walin.

Oot o the major pairty leaders in the Scots Pairlament, juist the ane (Jack McConnell o the Scots Labour Pairty) wis awready pairty leader in the 2003 election. Nicol Stephen succeedit Jim Wallace as Depute First Meinister an Leader o the Scots Leiberal Democrats in Juin 2005, efter Wallace annunced that he wadna be contestin the 2007 walin. Alex Salmond wis electit convener o the Scots National Pairty in 2004, wi his depute Nicola Sturgeon. Salmond haed led the SNP afore, atween 1990 an 2000, but demittit an wis replaced bi his preferred successor John Swinney, that led the pairty atween 2000 an 2004. Efter Swinney's demission in 2004, Salmond annunced that he wad contest for the heid again, an he bore the gree in the ballot o SNP members in Juin 2004. Annabel Goldie wis electit leader o the Scots Tories in November 2005 efter the demission o the incumbent David McLetchie on October 31, 2005 efter a taxi chairges stramash.

On the 1st o November 2006 The Scotsman furthset an opeinion poll  conductit bi ICM. The survey foond that 51% wis fur Scots unthirldom, wi 37% agin.

On the 10t September 2006 The Sunday Times Scotland publisht an opeinion poll  conductit bi YouGov. 1176 respondents wis interviewed atween 5-7 September 2006 . The survey foond that 44% wis in favour whan askit If there wis a referendum the morra on whether Scotland should become an independent kintra, separate frae the rest o the Unitit Kinrick, hou wad ye be inclined tae vote? 42% wis agin, an 15% didna ken. 64% wis fur giein the Scots Pairlament mair pouers, wi 19% disagreein.




#Article 377: Uniformitarianism (101 words)


The Preenciple o Uniformitarianism is that the naitral processes o the past is the same as the nou.  This is aften cried, The praisent is the key tae the bygane.  James Hutton developit this idea, that is sae important in modren sciences sic as geology, palaeontology, an astronomy.

In geology, uniformitarianism means that the processes shapin the yird the day is the same as in the bygane.  We can uise whit we ken o the day tae unnerstaund the history o the yird.

In Hutton's day, this idea wis revolutionar.  This wis acause the releegious thochts syne didna gree wi it.

 




#Article 378: Africae (345 words)


Africae is the warld's seicont mucklest an seicont maist-populous continent (the first bein Asie in baith categories). At aboot 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) includin adjacent islands, it cuivers 6% o Yird's tot surface aurie an 20.4% o its tot laund aurie. Wi  billion fowk as o , it accoonts for aboot 16% o the warld's human population. The continent is surroundit bi the Mediterranean Sea tae the north, baith the Suez Canal an the Reid Sea alang the Sinai Peninsula tae the northeast, the Indie Ocean tae the sootheast an the Atlantic Ocean tae the wast. The continent includes Madagascar an various airchipelagos. It conteens 54 fully recognised sovereign states (kintras), nine territories an twa de facto independent states wi leemitit or na recogneetion. The majority o the continent an its kintras are in the Northren Hemisphere, wi a substantial portion an nummer o kintras in the Soothren Hemisphere.

Africae's average population is the youngest amangst aw the continents; the median age in 2012 wis 19.7, whan the warldwide median age wis 30.4. Algerie is Africae's mucklest kintra bi aurie, an Nigerie is its mucklest bi population. Africae, pairteecularly central Eastren Africae, is widely acceptit as the place o oreegin o humans an the Hominidae clade (great apes), as evidenced bi the diskivery o the earliest hominids an thair auncestors, as weel as later anes that hae been datit tae aroond seiven million years ago, includin Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Australopithecus africanus, A. afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis an H. ergaster—wi the earliest Homo sapiens (modren human) foond in Ethiopie bein datit tae circa 200,000 year ago. Africae straidles the equator an encompasses numerous climate auries; it is the anly continent tae stretch frae the northren temperate tae soothren temperate zones.

Africae hosts a muckle diversity o ethnicities, culturs an leids. In the late 19t century European kintras colonised awmaist aw o Africae; maist present states in Africae oreeginatit frae a process o decolonisation in the 20t century. African naitions cooperate throu the establishment o the African Union, that is heidquartert in Addis Ababa.




#Article 379: Antarcticae (360 words)


Antarcticae is a continent at the dowp o the yird. The wather's gey cauld. Maist o Antarcticae is happit wi ice an snaw maist o the year. Gey few fowk stays there, cept in the smaw touns o McMurdo an Palmer neist the sea. There's a science base at the Sooth Pole whaur experiments is cairit oot, maistly adae wi the wather an ooter space exploration.

Antarcticae's the ae continent wi nae kintras. Nane o the laund in Antarcticae belangs ony kintra.

There' nae mony plants in Antarcticae; the ae muckle air-braithin ainimals is penguins, selchs, an whales.

Antarcticae's surroundit bi the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, an the Indie Ocean, but nouadays, the seas neist tae it is cried the Soothren Ocean. The neist nearest continent is Sooth Americae.

The nemm Antarcticae is gien frae a Roman version o a Greek word 'Antarktike'. Anti is for common uised as a conter word in baith Greek an Inglish leeds an sicwyce Antarcticae means the conter o The Arctic Land o The North.
Anti an Arctic thegither gies us the compoond word Antarcticae.

Unique tae Antarcticae is the fack it is awmaist hailie cuivered bi Glacier Ice.Tho aftimes sic Ice cuiver is referred tae as the ae singil Ice sheet,in truith it is twa sindrie lairge aureas o ice at differ frae ither in baith physical an heistorical terms. Thir Ice sheets are cryed Aest an Wast Antarcticaen Ice sheets. The Aest Ice sheet is baith the maist muckle o the twa alang wi bein the thickest an auldest an aw.

Tho the continent itsel isnae centred ower  The Sooth Pole,the muckle pairt faws intil  the Aestern hemisphere an is sae defined bi The Prime Meridian.
The Wastren Ice sheet hauds a smawer aurea o land athin The Wastren Hemisphere. This haes The Weddell Sea on the tae side an Ross Sea on the tither.
The  Moontains cryed The Transantarctic Moontains extend athort the Continent giein us a kennable mairch atween Aest Antarcticae (Muckle Antarcticae) an Wast Antarcticae (Lesser Antarcticae).
Ither nor pairts o the Aest Antarcticaen Coast an  Penninsula the maist feck o Antarcticae is Sooth o The Antarctic Circle.




#Article 380: Asie (434 words)


Asie is Yird's mucklest an maist populous continent, locatit primarily in the Eastren an Northren Hemispheres. It shares the continental laundmass o Eurasie wi the continent o Europe an the continental laundmass o Afro-Eurasie wi baith Europe an Africae. Asie covers an aurie o , aboot 30% o Yird's tot laund aurie an 8.7% o the Yird's tot surface aurie. The continent, that haes lang been hame tae the majority o the human population, wis the steid o mony o the first ceevilisations. Asie is notable for nae anly its oweraw muckle size an population, but an aa dense an muckle settlements, as weel as vast barely populatit regions. Its  billion fowk constitute aboot 60% o the warld's population.

In general terms, Asie is boondit on the east bi the Paceefic Ocean, on the sooth bi the Indie Ocean an on the north bi the Arctic Ocean. The wastren boondar wi Europe is a historical an cultural construct, as thare is na clear pheesical an geografical separation atween them. The maist commonly acceptit boondaries place Asie tae the east o the Suez Canal, the Ural River, an the Ural Moontains, an sooth o the Caucasus Moontains an the Caspian an Black Seas.

Cheenae an Indie alternatit in bein the lairgest economies in the warld frae 1 tae 1800 CE. Cheenae wis a major economic pouer an attractit mony tae the east, and for many the legendary wealth and prosperity of the ancient culture of India personified Asia, attractin European commerce, exploration an colonialism. The accidental diskivery o Americae bi Columbus in sairch for Indie demonstrates this deep fascination. The Silk Road becam the main East-Wast treddin route in the Asie hinterlands while the Straits o Malacca stuid as a major sea route. Asie haes exhibited economic dynamism (pairteecularly East Asie) as weel as robust population growthe in the 20t century, but oweraw population growthe haes syne fawen. Asie wis the birthplace o maist o the warld's mainstream releegions includin Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism (or Daoism), Jainism, Sikhism, Zoroastranism, as weel as mony ither releegions.

Gien its size an diversity, the concept o Asie—a name datin back tae clessical antiquity—mey actually hae mair tae dae wi human geografie nor pheesical geografie. Asie varies greatly athort an within its regions wi regaird tae ethnic groups, culturs, environments, economics, historical ties an govrenment seestems. It an aa haes a mix o mony different climates rangin frae the equatorial sooth via the het desert in the Middle East, temperate auries in the east an the  continental centre tae vast subarctic an polar auries in Siberie.




#Article 381: North Americae (119 words)


North Americaes a continent in the northren hauf o the warld, locate tae the east o the Pacific Ocean, the wast o the Atlantic Ocean, the sooth o the Arctic Ocean, an the north o Sooth Americae. It's the northrenmaist pairt o the Americaes. 

Northren Americae includes thir muckle kintras, listit frae north tae sooth:

The kintras o Central Americae is thocht tae be pairt o North Americae an aw. They are: Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, an Panama. 

Aw the kintras an islands o the Caribbean is pairt o North Americae.

Greenland, governt bi Denmark, is a muckle island tae the nor'east o Canadae, an is thocht tae be pairt o North Americae an aw.




#Article 382: Laitin Americae (277 words)


Laitin Americae is a region o the Warld.

Laitin Americae's in the Americaes. No aabody grees on whit kintras is in Laitin Americae. Some fowk cry Sooth Americae, Central Americae, an Mexico Laitin Americae. Ither fowk crie the Caribbean Islands Laitin Americae an aw. Ither fowk cries aa Americaen kintras whaur fowk speaks Spaingie, Portuguese, an French Laitin Americae.

The ward 'Laitin' comes fae the Laitin leid. The Spaingie, Portuguese, an French leids, spak bi mony fowk in Laitin Americae is Romance leids. Romance leids is derived fae Latin. Bit no aa fowk in Laitin Americae speaks Romance leids. Some Latin Americaen fowk speaks Native American leids an aa.

Maist Laitin Americaens is Roman Catholic.

Some fowk cries the kintras in the Americaes that's no pairt o Laitin Americae Germanic America. In Germanic American kintras, maist fowk speaks Germanic leids: Inglis, Dutch, an Dens.

The first European tae find Laitin Americae wis Christopher Columbus, in 1492. Columbus wis wantin tae find a cuttie wey tae eastren Asie. Whan Christopher Columbus cam back tae Europe, fowk wis excitit aboot the discovery. The Pape drew the Line o Demarcation in 1493 acause he didna want Spain an Portugal tae fecht ower whit kintra haed the richt tae claim the new laund. Awthing on the wast side o the line wis gien tae Spain an awthing tae the east wis gien tae Portugal. The Spaingie invadit Mexico wi ease. The Native Americaens coudna fecht agin the Spaingie acause the Spaingie haed horse an guns. The Native Americaens in Mexico thocht that the Spaingie fowk wis gods. Lades o fowk dee'd acause o the diseases brocht bi the Spaingie an aw.




#Article 383: Alphabet (177 words)


An alphabet or ABC is a scrievin seestem, a leet o seembols for scrievin. A seembol in an alphabet is for ordinar cried a letter. In an alphabet, ilka digraph can be a seembol for a soond or morpheme.

The name alphabet comes frae Alpha an Beta, the first twa letters in the Greek alphabet.

The alphabet uised in this airticle is the Laitin alphabet (or Roman alphabet). It wis first uised in Auncient Rome for tae write Laitin. Mony leids uises the Laitin alphabet an aw, an it's the maist widely-uised alphabet the nou. Alphabets uise letters for scrievin, an aw letters cry a soond (a vowel or a consenant), an ither scrievin seestems dinnae uise letters for aw soonds.

A leet o some alphabets an examples o leids at uise thaim:

Ither writin seestems daena uise seembols that means a soond, but insteid uises seembols that means a wird or a seelable. Lang syne, mony culturs uised sic writin seestems, but thay are maistlins anerly uised bi leids that fowk speaks in Asie the nou.




#Article 384: Cheenese chairacter (108 words)


Cheenese chairacters is seembols uised for writin Cheenese an Japanese. Lang syne, Korean an Vietnamese uised them an aw. The stairt o thir chairacters wis at least 4000 year syne.

Cheenese chairacters is ideograms — thay maistlins represent ideas insteid o soonds. Maist earlier Cheenese chairacters wis pictographs - semple picturs uised tae mean wirds, bit no mony modren Cheenese chairacters is pictographs. Mony modren Cheenese chairacters is a combination o twa or mair semple chairacters.

Cheenese chairacters is an important pairt o East Asie cultur. Cheenese chairacters can be thocht o as bein abstract airt, acause o hou the chairacters is made up o lines an pynts.




#Article 385: Brahma (114 words)


Accordin tae Hinduism an Hindu mythology, Brahma is ane o the three maist important gods. The ither twa gods is Vishnu an Shiva. Brahma represents Brahman, a term an concept o Hinduism.

The Hindu tradeetion says that Brahma haes five heids. Houaniver, the mythological story tells that Shiva cuttit ane o the heids aff o Brahma. The tradeetion states that the fower heids o Brahma represents mony aspects o Hinduism na aw. The fower heids represents the fower Vedas - gey important Hindu scripturs. Thae fower heids represents the fower diveesions o time o Hinduism cried the Yugas an aw. They represent the fower diveesions o the Hindu society, the fower Varnas an aw.




#Article 386: A Red, Red Rose (437 words)


A Red, Red Rose is a Scots sang bi Robert Burns that he wrate in 1794, based on tradeetional soorces.

Burns wrocht for the hintmaist ten year o his life for tae uphaud tradeetional Scots sangs for times tae come.  In aw, he haed a haund in hainin ower three hunder sangs, the maist kenspeckle airgiably bein Auld Lang Syne.  He wrocht on this project fer James Johnson's The Scots Musical Museum (1787-1803) an for George Thomson's five-vollum A Select Collection of Orginal Scottish Airs for the Voice.  Burns ettelt that A Red, Red Rose shoud be setten furth as pairt o Thomson's ingaitherin.  Houe'er, he wrate a freend that Thomson an him didna gree on the merits o thon teep o sang: Whit tae me appears tae be the semple an the will, tae him, an I jalouse tae ye an aw, wuill be leukit on as the ludicrous an the daftlike.
Insteid, Burns gied the sang tae Scots lilter Pietro Urbani, that set it furth in his Scots Songs.  In his beuk, Urbani wrate:

In ither letters, Burns referred tae it as a semple Scots sang that I haed pickit up in the kintra.

O my Luv's like a red, red rose
That’s newly sprung in June;
O my Luv's like the melodie
That’s sweetly play'd in tune.

As fair art thou, my bonnie lass,
So deep in luv am I:
And I will luv thee still, my dear,
Till a’ the seas gang dry:

Till a’ the seas gang dry, my dear,
And the rocks melt wi’ the sun:
I will luv thee still, my dear,
While the sands o’ life shall run.

And fare thee weel, my only Luv
And fare thee weel, a while!
And I will come again, my Luv,
Tho’ it were ten thousand mile.

Urbani set the sang furth tae an oreeginal tuin that he wrate.  The sang kythed in Johnson's Museum in 1797 tae the tuin o Neil Gow's Major Graham that wis the tuin Burns wis wantin.  In 1799, it kythed in Thomson's Scottish Airs setten tae William Marshall's Wishaw's Favourite wi the leerics chynged a tait.

The sang becam mair popular whan Robert Archibald Smith jyned it wi the tuin o Low Down in the Broom in his Scottish Minstrel beuk in 1821.  This haes acome the maist popular arreengment.  The same haes been widely performed bi a reenge o airtists sinsyne, wi mony deefferent fowk, pop, rock an choral versions kythin.

A Swadish translate an recordin cried Min älskling (du är som en ros) wis made fawmous bi the weel kent Swadish muisicker Evert Taube.




#Article 387: Istanbul (462 words)


Istanbul ( ), historically kent as Constantinople an Byzantium, is the maist populous ceety in Turkey an the kintra's economic, cultural, an historic centre. Istanbul is a transcontinental ceety in Eurasie, straddlin the Bosphorus strait (which separates Europe an Asie) atween the Sea o Marmara an the Black Sea. Its commercial an historical centre lies on the European side an aboot a third o its population leeves on the Asie side.
The ceety is the admeenistrative centre o the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality ( wi Istanbul Province), baith hostin a population o aroond 14.7 million residents. Istanbul is ane o the warld's maist populous ceeties an ranks as the warld's 7t-lairgest ceety proper an the lairgest European ceety.

Foondit unner the name o Byzantion (Βυζάντιον) on the Sarayburnu promontory aroond 660 BCE, the ceety developed tae acome ane o the maist signeeficant in history. Efter its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as an imperial caipital for awmaist 16 centuries, during the Roman an Byzantine (330–1204 an 1261–1453), the Laitin (1204–1261), an the Ottoman (1453–1922) empires. It wis instrumental in the advancement o Christianity during Roman an Byzantine times, afore the Ottomans conquered the ceety in 1453 an transformed it intae an Islamic stranghauld an the seat o the Ottoman Caliphate.

Istanbul's strategic poseetion on the historic Silk Road, rail networks tae Europe an the Middle East, an the anerly sea route atween the Black Sea an the Mediterranean hae produced a cosmopolitan populace, awtho less sae syne the establishment o the Turkis Republic in 1923. Owerleuked for the new caipital Ankara during the interwar period, the ceety haes syne regained much o its prominence. The population o the ceety haes increased tenfauld syne the 1950s, as migrants frae across Anatolie hae muived in an ceety leemits hae expandit tae accommodate them. Airts, muisic, film, an cultural festivals war established at the end o the 20t century an continue tae be hostit bi the ceety the day. Infrastructur impruivements hae produced a complex transportation network.

Approximately  foreign veesitors arrived in Istanbul in 2015, five year efter it wis named a European Caipital o Cultur, makkin the ceety the warld's fift maist popular tourist destination. The ceety's biggest attraction is its historic centre, pairtially leetit as a UNESCO Warld Heritage Steid, an its cultural an enterteenment hub can be foond athort the ceety's naitural harbor, the Gowden Horn, in the Beyoğlu destrict. Considered a global ceety, Istanbul haes ane o the fastest-growin metropolitan economies in the warld. It hosts the heidquarters o mony Turkis companies an media ootlets an accoonts for mair nor a quarter o the kintra's gross domestic product. Hopin tae caipitalise on its revitalisation an rapid expansion, Istanbul haes bid for the Simmer Olympics five times in twinty years.




#Article 388: Snaw (106 words)


Snaw is gealt ice creestals o rain. Whan cloods is fou thay poor oot rain but in cauld wather ice creestals faws oot as wee saft flauchts cried snawflauchts.

At a speceefic temperatur (cried the freezin pynt, 0° Celsius, 32° Fahrenheit), snaw melts awa an turns intae watter. Whiles, the snaw melts gey fast an turns intae watter vapour, watter in the air. This is cried sublimation. The ither wey aboot, whaur watter vapour turns intae snaw, is cried deposeetion.

Snaw is needit for some winter sport acteevities like skiin an snawbuirdin. Fowk can play wi snaw an big hings wi it, like snawmen an snawbaws. 




#Article 389: Celebrity Big Brother 5 (100 words)


Celebrity Big Brother 2007 wis the celebrity version o the tv shaw cried Big Brother, in whit fowks maun bide thegither in a hoose an cairy oot tasks setten bi the chairacter kent tae them aw as Big Brother foondit on the teetle chairacter o the beuk Nineteen Eighty-Four bi the 20t century author George Orwell.

In the 2007 series, delations o racism cam tae the fore, whan Jade Goody, Danielle Lloyd, an Jo O'Meara appeart tae baund up agin the Bollywood film starn Shilpa Shetty. Tens o thoosands o tv viewers cawed the chainel tae compleen anent thair ill-laits.




#Article 390: Jade Goody (254 words)


Jade Cerisa Lorraine Goody (5 Juin 1981 – 22 Mairch 2009) wis a Inglis reality-telly personality. She entered the public spotlicht in the  o the then-Channel 4 programme Big Brother in 2002, an appearance which led tae her awn TV programmes an the introduction o her products efter her eviction frae the shaw.

In Januar 2007, Goody wis a hoosemate on Celebrity Big Brother 5. Durin the shaw, she wis accuised o  the Indie actress Shilpa Shetty. Efter her eviction frae the shaw, she admittit that her actions wur wrang an made a nummer o public apologies. In late 2007 an early 2008, polls indicatit that Goody wis vera unpopular wi the public.
 
In August 2008 she appeared on the Indie version o Big Brother, , but left the shaw early an returned tae the UK efter she learned she haed cervical cancer. Bi Februar 2009, the cancer haed metastasisit, an Goody wis terminally ill. Goody marriet fellae Celebrity Big Brother contestant Jack Tweed on 22 Februar 2009, an dee'd ane month later, in the early oors o 22 Mairch 2009, at the age o 27. Sky Living broadcast five tribute shaws tae Goody frae 2009 tae 2012, documentin her life frae early bairnheid throu her rise tae fame an her feenal months. The last episode o Big Brother on Channel 4 featurt a 15-minute tribute tae Goody, praisin her as the ultimate Big Brother contestant. She appeared on the front kiver o the feenal edeetion o News of the World in Julie 2011.




#Article 391: Caipital ceety (177 words)


In politics, a caipital ceety (cried heidtoun, heidsteid or poleetical caipital an aw — awtho the latter haes a seicont meinin based on anither sense o caipital) is the heid ceetie or toun associatit wi a kintra's govrenment. It is awmaist aye the ceetie that pheesicalie hauds the offices an meetin steids o the seat o govrenment an is fixt bi law.

The wird caipital cums frae the Laitin caput meinin heid.

Seats o govrenment in mukkil sub-kintra stewartries is aften cried capitals, but this is forordnar the case anerlie in kintras wi sum amoont o federalism, whaur mukkil sub-kintra stewartries haes an element o sovereignty. In unitary kintras, admeenistrative centur or ither siclyk terms is forordnar uised. For byspel, the seat o govrenment in a state o the Unitit States o Americae is forordnar cried its caipital, but the main ceetie in a region o Ingland isna. At lawer admeenistrative subdiveesions, terms sic as coontie toun, coontie seat, or burgh seat is forordnar uised.

In ither senses, the wird caipital is uised ti mein heidsteid (heidquarters).




#Article 392: Bungee leid (100 words)


The Bungee leid wis a leid spak in wastren Canadae by Metis fowk that wis the bairns o Scots fur trokers an native Cree fowk. It wis a mixtur o the native Cree leid an the Scots Gaelic leid an wis influenced by the Orcadian dialect o the Scots leid an aw, the Inglis leid an ither native leids asides Cree. The leid wis spak in the province o Manitoba till the 1950s. Anither leid cried Michif wis spak by the Metis fowk at aboot the same time in history. It wis a mixtur o the Cree an French leids.




#Article 393: Japanese leid (352 words)


Japanese (日本語 Nihon-go or Nippon-go in Japanese) is the leid spak on the island kintra o Japan, in Eastren Asie.

Japan haes juist the five vouel soonds. They are /a/, /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/. Japanese haes juist the ae soond atween L an R, insteid o the twa soonds that Scots haes. That's hou it's difficult for mony Japanese fowk tae say the Scots 'R' an 'L'. Japanese haes a soond no aft foond in Scots that's for ordinar wrat Tsu. Forby thon, vouels can be baith short or lang. For example, benkyousuru （勉強する）(tae study) haes a lang o.

In Japanese, the verb comes at the end o the sentence, an the subject's at the beginnin. The subject is aften implee'd bi the context an can be left oot.

In Japanese, Japan is cried Nihon (日本), an the Japanese leid is cried Nihongo (日本語) (-go means leid). Whiles the wirds Nippon and Nippongo is uised an aw; these wirds is thocht o as mair nationalist the nou, while Nihon is a mair neutral wird.

The Japanese leid uises three writin seestems, kanji (漢字), katakana (カタカナ) an hiragana (ひらがな). Katakana is for writin soond effecs an wirds fae ootwi o Japan. Hiragana is for writin wirds fae inside Japan. Baith writin seestems haes seembols that means a seelable. Katakana haes strauchter lips an shairper neuks nor hiragana. Hiragana haes mair bowes nor katakana.

The third wey tae write, cried kanji (漢字), whaur ilka wird or idea haes a pictur chairacter taen fae Cheenese. For tae can read Japanese newspapers, students maun learn 1,945 kanji. Mony kanji is made fae mair smaw, sempler kanji. Kanji haes unalike soonds whan uised in unalike weys, but ilka kanji still haes anerly certaint weys it can be read.

Written Japanese disna hae spaces atween wirds, sae kanji helps sinder wirds in a sentence.

Japanese can be wrat in twa weys:

Sentences in Japanese is makkit like this: subject, object, verb. For example, A ate an aiple the day (今日、私はりんごを食べました) wad be in this order The day, A an aiple ate.

Here's some examples o Japanese wirds :




#Article 394: Katakana (644 words)


Katakana is the wey that some o the wirds is written in Japanese. It is mair easier tae read nor the kanji (the seestem based on Cheenese chairacters) whilk maun be learnt wird bi wird, acause ance the 46 katakana seembols haes been learnt, the reader kens whit wey tae pronounce them.

Katakana an hiragana is baith syllabaries. In Scots we uise the letters o the alphabet. In maist wirds ilka letter staunds for a bittie soond (a phoneme). In a seelabary, ilka seembol staunds for a seelable. For example: in Scots we write “Wagamama”: ilka ane o the aicht letters staudns for a soond: “W-a-g-a-m-a-m-a”. Bit gin the wird “Wagamama” is dividit intae seelables there is anerly fower syllables (blocks o soond): Wa-ga-ma-ma. In Katakana it is written wi fower seembols: ワガママ. 

Hiragana wirks in the same wey, but the seembols isna the same. Katakana is mibbes a puckle easier tae learn nor Hiragana acause the seembols is mair semple an mair “squared aff”. Katakana an Hiragana the gither is cried “Kana”.

This is a table for the basic katakana straiks. The first chairt shaws the basic katakana (chairacters wi  bricht reid letters neist them is no uised ony mair ).

Fae the first table it can be seen that there's 46 basic chairacters (tap left, first five columns, fae a tae wa). Diphthongs (vouels that slides fae ae soond tae the ither) maun be written wi an extra seembol in smaw prent. For example: the soond “mu” in oor wird “muisic” soonds like “myu” so it is writ ミュ (mi+yu). Sae the wird “muisical” (as in a stage muisical) is written: ミュージカル.
A lang vouel is shawn in katakana bi a kynd o dash cried a “choon” (ー).

Katakana is uised for tae write wirds that haes been borraed fae ither languages, or tae write fremmit names an names o kintras. For example Americae is written アメリカ.

It's no aye easy for us tae recogneese thae wirds acause the Japanese leid disna hae some o the soonds that we hae in Scots. This means that the Japanese maun find ither weys tae pronoonce an write the wird. For example: the wird “coffee” is written コーヒー (koo-hii). The wird is whiles shortent an aw: “televeesion” is written テレビ (pronoonced “te-re-bi”). 

It is whiles no possible tae shaw the differ atween twa fremmit wirds, e.g. ラーラー coud spell baith “Lara” an “Lala” (as in the Teletubbie). The Japanese hae juist ae siclike soond whilk is atween oor “r” an “l”.

In the Japanese leid a consonant is aye follaed bi a vouel. Wirds or seellables canna end in a consonant (cept n or m), sae the Japanese whiles pit in an extra vouel. “Ski” (as in skiin) becomes “suki” (スキ), an a “muisical”, as we hae seen, becomes “myuujikaru” (ミュージカル).

Forby thon, Katakana is uised for onomatopoeic wirds like “ding”, or for makkin wirds leuk important, or for scientific names like the names o birds. Whiles sentences in beuks or cartoons micht be written in katakana for tae shaw that a body is mibbes spickin wi a fremmit accent. It is aft uised tae write the names o Japanese companies, i.e. Suzuki is written スズキ, an Toyota is written トヨタ. 

A smaw “tsu” ッ cried a “sokuon” shaws whit we wad write as a dooble consonant, e.g. the English wird “bed” is uised in Japanese for a wastren-style bed. It is pronoonced “beddo” an written ベッド. The ッ maks the “e” vouel short.

Learnin tae read the katakana chairacters is uissfu for readin some o the signs in Japan, or items on the restaurant menus.

Japanese sentences is aften written in a mixtur-maxtur o katakana, hiragana an kanji, e.g.:
スコットランド人です (sukottorando jin desu: Ahm a Scot). Here “sukottorando” is written in katakana, the endin “jin”(人) is kanji, an “desu” (Ah am) is in hiragana.




#Article 395: Cairo (1113 words)


Cairo (;  , literally The Vanquisher or The Conqueror) is the caipital o Egyp, the lairgest ceety in Africae an the Arab Warld, an ane o the maist densely populatit ceeties in the warld.

Nicknamed The Ceety o a Thoosan Minarets for its preponderance o Islamic airchitectur, Cairo haes lang been a centre o the region's poleetical an cultural life. Even afore Cairo wis established in the 10t century, the land composin the present-day ceety wis the site o naitional caipitals whose remnants remain visible in pairts o Auld Cairo. Cairo is an aa associatit wi Auncient Egyp due tae its proximity tae the Great Sphinx an the pyramids in adjacent Giza.

Egyptians the day aften refer tae Cairo as Maṣr (Arabic:مصر), the Arabic pronunciation o the name for Egyp itsel, emphasizin the ceety's continued role in Egyptian influence. Cairo haes the auldest an lairgest film an muisic industries in the Arab Warld, as well as the warld's seicont-auldest institution o hichter learnin, al-Azhar University. Mony internaitional media, businesses, an organisations hae regional heidquarters in the ceety, an the Arab League haes haed its heidquarters in Cairo for maist o its existence.

Cairo is locatit in northren Egyp, kent as Lawer Egyp, 

Till the mid-19t century, when the river wis tamed bi dams, levees, an ither controls, the Nile in the vicinity o Cairo wis heichlie susceptible tae chynges in course an surface level. Ower the years, the Nile gradually shiftit wastward, providin the site atween the eastren edge o the river an the Mokattam hielands on which the ceety nou staunds. The land on which Cairo wis established in 969 (present-day Islamic Cairo) wis locatit unnerwater juist ower three hunder years earlier, when Fustat wis first biggit.

Law periods o the Nile durin the 11t century continued tae add tae the landscape o Cairo; a new island, kent as Geziret al-Fil, first appeared in 1174, but eventually became connectit tae the mainland. The day, the site o Geziret al-Fil is occupied bi the Shubra destrict. The law periods creatit anither island at the turn o the 14t century that nou composes Zamalek an Gezira. Land reclamation efforts bi the Mamluks an Ottomans faur contributit tae expansion on the east bank o the river.

Acause o the Nile's movement, the newer pairts o the ceety – Garden Ceety, Cairo Ceety Centre, an Zamalek – are locatit closest tae the riverbank. The auries, which are hame tae maist o Cairo's embassies, are surroondit on the north, east, an sooth bi the aulder pairts o the ceety. Auld Cairo, locatit sooth o the centre, haulds the remnants o Fustat an the hert o Egyp's Coptic Christian community, Coptic Cairo. The Boulaq destrict, which lies in the northren pairt o the ceety, wis born oot o a major 16t-century port an is nou a major industrial centrer. The Citadel is locatit east o the ceety centre aroond Islamic Cairo, which dates back tae the Fatimid era an the foondation o Cairo. While wastren Cairo is dominatit bi wide boulevards, open spaces, an modren architecture o European influence, the eastren hauf, haein grown haphazardly ower the centuries, is dominatit bi sma lanes, croudit tenements, an Islamic architecture.

Northren an extreme eastren pairts o Cairo, which include satellite touns, are amang the maist recent additions tae the ceety, as thay developit in the late-20t an early-21st centuries tae accommodate the ceety's rapid growthe. The wastren bank o the Nile is commonly includit athin the urban aurie o Cairo, but it composes the ceety o Giza an the Giza Govrenorate. Giza haes an aa unnergane significant expansion ower recent years, an the day the ceety, awtho still a suburb o Cairo, haes a population o 2.7 million. The Cairo Govrenorate is juist north o the Helwan Govrenorate, which wis creatit in 2008 when some o Cairo's soothren destricts, includin Maadi an New Cairo, wur split aff an annexed intae the new govrenorate.

Cairo is an aa in ivery respect the centre o Egyp, as it haes been amaist syne its foondin in 969 AD. The majority o the naition's commerce is generatit thare, or passes throu the ceety. The great majority o publishin hooses an media ootlets an nearly aw film studios are thare, as are hauf o the naition's hospital beds an varsities. This haes fueled rapid construction in the ceety—ane biggin in five is less nor 15 year auld.

This astonishin growthe til recently surged well aheid o ceety services. Hames, roads, electricity, telephone an sewer services wur aw suddent in short supply. Analysts tryin tae grasp the magnitude o the chynge coined terms lik hyper-urbanization.

Tahrir Square wis foondit durin the mid 19t century wi the establishment o modren doun-toun Cairo. It wis first named Ismailia Square, efter the 19t-century ruler Isma'il Pasha, who commissioned the new dountoun destrict's 'Paris on the Nile' design. Efter the Egyptian Revolution o 1919 the square became widely kent as Tahrir (Liberation) Square. Several notable biggins surroond the square includin, The American University in Cairo's dountoun campus, the Mogamma govrenmental admeenistrative biggin, the heidquarters o the Arab League, the Nile Ritz Carlton Hotel, the heidquarters o the Naitional Democratic Pairty, an the Egyptian Museum. Bein at the hert o Cairo, the square witnessed several major protests ower the years. Housomeivver, the maist notable event in the square wis bein the focal pynt o the Egyptian Revolution o 2011 against umwhile preses Hosni Mubarak.

The Museum o Egyptian Antiquities, kent commonly as the Egyptian Museum, is hame tae the maist extensive collection o auncient Egyptian antiquities in the warld. It haes 136,000 items on display, wi mony mair hunders o thoosans in its basement storerooms.

Khan el-Khalili is an auncient bazaar, or mercatplace. It dates back tae 1382, when Emir Djaharks el-Khalili biggit a lairge caravanserai, or khan. A caravanserai is a hotel for traders, an uisually the focal pynt for ony surroondin aurie. The caravanserai remains the day.

The pairt o Cairo that contains Coptic Cairo an Fostat, which contains the Coptic Museum, Babylon Fortress, Hangin Kirk, the Greek Kirk o St. George, mony ither Coptic kirks, the Ben Ezra Synagogue an Amr ibn al-'As Mosque.

The Cairo Touer is a free-staundin concrete TV touer in Cairo. It staunds in the Zamalek destrict on Gezira Island in the Nile River, in the ceety centre. At 187 meters, it is 43 metres heicher than the Great Pyramid o Giza, which staunds some 15 km tae the soothwast.

Established in 972, Al-Azhar mosque wis historically the site o the renouned Al-Azhar University, till the varsity's muive in the late 20t century tae a new campus in Nasr Ceety.

Cairo is twinned wi:




#Article 396: Athens (646 words)


Athens (; , Athína, ; , Athēnai) is the caipital an lairgest ceity o Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region an is ane o the , wi its recordit history spannin aroond 3,400 year. Classical Athens, as a landlockit location wis a pouerful ceity-state that emergit in conjunction wi the seagoin development o the port o Piraeus. A centre for the airts, learnin an filosofie, hame o Plato's Academy an Aristotle's Lyceum, it is widely referred tae as the cradle o Wastren ceevilization an the birthplace o democracy, lairgely due tae the impact o its cultural an poleetical achievements durin the 5t an 4t centuries BC in later centuries on the rest o the then kent European continent. The day a cosmopolitan metropolis, modren Athens is central tae economic, feenancial, industrial, poleetical an cultural life in Greece. In 2008, Athens wis rankit the warld's 32nt richest ceity bi purchasin pouer an the 25t maist expensive in a UBS study. The ceity is namit in honour o Athena.

Lang syne, Athens wis a feckfu ceity. It wis kent for the feck o learnin that happened thare, an wis hame tae Plato's Academy an Aristotle's Lyceum. It haed its ain Constitution an aw.

The Ottoman Turks teuk ower Athens in 1458. The Turks made the Parthenon intae a Muslim mosque.  The Parthenon wis later skaithed in 1687 whan gunpouder explodit ben the biggin.

Athens wis freed fae the Turks durin the Greek war o unthirldom (1821-33). It syne becam the caipital o Greece.

Athens became the caipital o Greece in 1834, follaein Nafplio, which wis the proveesional caipital frae 1829. In addeetion, the municipality o Athens is the caipital o the Attica region. Athens can refer aither tae the municipality o Athens or tae the entire Athens Urban area, which maks up the Ceity o Athens that sprawls athort the Attica Basin.

The Athens Metropolitan Area, sprawlin ower , is locatit athin the  Attica region. The region encompasses the maist populatit region o Greece, reachin 3,827,624 indwallers in 2011, while it is housomeivver, ane o the smawest regions in the kintra.

The Attica region itsel is split intae aicht regional units, oot o which the first fower form Greater Athens, while the regional unit o Piraeus forms Greater Piraeus. Thegither thay mak up the contiguous biggit up urban area o the Greek caipital, spanning ower .

Till 2010, the first fower regional units abuin made up the abolisht Athens Prefectur (wha is referred tae as Greater Athens) an aw, which wis the maist populous o the Prefecturs o Greece at the time, accoontin for 2,640,701 fowk (in 2011), athin a area o .

The municipality o Athens is the maist populous in Greece, wi a population o 664,046 fowk (in 2011) an a area o , formin the core o the Athens Urban Area athin the Attica Basin. The current  is Giorgos Kaminis. The municipality is dividit intae seiven municipal destricts which are mainly uised for admeenistrative purposes.

Population data for the 7 municipal destricts o Athens (2001 census):

For Athenians the maist popular wey o dividin the ceity proper is throu its neebourheids sic as Pagkrati, Ambelokipi, Exarcheia, Patissia, Ilissia, Petralona, Koukaki an Kypseli, each wi its awn distinct history an characteristics.

The Athens municipality forms the core an centre o Greater Athens an aw which consists o the Athens municipality an 34 mair municipalities, which are dividit in the fower regional units mentioned abuin.

The municipalities o Greater Athens alang wi the municipalities athin Greater Piraeus (regional unit o Piraeus) form the Athens Urban Area, while the lairger metropolitan area includes several addeetional suburbs an touns surroondin the dense urban area o the Greek caipital.

Athens haes several lairge sports clubs lik fitball clubs AEK Athens F.C., Panathinaikos F.C. an Panionios G.S.S, basketbaa club Maroussi B.C. an handbaw club Sony Athinaikos Athens.

Athens is twinned wi:




#Article 397: Beijing (349 words)


Beijing is the caipital o the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae. The ceety is kent as Peking an aw. It's locatit in the nor'east o the kintra.

The ceity o Beijing haes played a gey important pairt in the oncome o Cheenae. Mony fowk fae ither ceeties an kintras haes flittit tae Beijing tae leuk for wark. Near-haund 15 meellion fowk bides thare. In 2008 Beijing hostit the Olympic Gemmes.

Beijing haes a kenspeckle history. Syne the Jin deenasty, Beijing's been the caipital for mony deenasties, sic as the Yuan, Ming, Qing, an ithers forby. Thare's mony places o historic interest in Beijing. Thir places includes the Simmer Pailace, the Temple o Heiven, an the Great Waw o Cheenae.

Beijing means the northren caipital in the Cheenae leid. It wis ance a coonterpairt tae Nanjing, the soothren caipital, durin the Ming Deenasty. This deenasty gied Beijing its name.

The middle o Beijing wis settelt in the 1st millennium BC. In thae days, the Kinrick o Yan (?) set up thair caipital whaur Beijing is the day. Thay cried it Ji (?). Efter the Kinrick o Yan wis malafoustert, the ceity becam wee-er, awtho it wis still an important place.

Beijing becam mair important again in the 10t century, whan the Jin deenasty set its caipital thare. This ceity wis malafoustert bi Mongol arimies in 1215. Then in 1267, Mongols biggit a new ceity on the north lip o the Jin caipital, an cried it Great Caipital (??). That wis the beginnin o modren Beijing. Whan Kublai Khan, the Mongolian monarch, set up the Yuan deenasty, this ceity becam his caipital.

The Yuan, Ming, an Qing deenasties aw uised Beijing as thair caipitals. Whan the Qing deenasty tint pouer an the Republic o Cheenae wis establisht, the new Republic muived its caipital fae Beijing tae Nanjing. Whan the communists claucht pouer an estaiblisht the Fowk's Republic, Beijing becam the caipital o Cheenae ance again.

Beijing haes numerous twin touns an sister ceeties aroond the warld, mony o them the caipitals o thair respective kintras:

Beijing haes twa pairtner ceeties, baith in Europe:




#Article 398: Mumbai (351 words)


Mumbai (kent as Bombay, its umwhile offeecial name till 1995, an aw) is a naitural herbour on the wast coast o Indie, an is the caipital ceety o Maharashtra state. It's Indie's maist muckle ceety, an the 4t maist populous ceety proper in the warld. It's cawed the commercial caipital o Indie.
It haes the Bombay Stock Exchynge an aw major financial trokin is duin thare.

Locate on the Wast Coast o Indie, the group o islands that haes developit intae the ceety o Bombay, wis likely first recordit as the name o fish-carles whaur a group o Buddhist monks estaiblisht an ootpost durin the later Magadhan empire. The islands wis passed fae ae king tae anither for twa millenia, till the Breetish tred empire decidit tae forder the naitural herbour intil a ceety. In the fower hunder year syne, the ceety haes growen bi a series o laund reclamations that jynes the oreeginal islands intil ae mass the nou.

The ceety wis cried Bombay for maist o the last fower hunder years. The oreegin o the name is kittlie, but is aft thocht tae come fae the Portuguese phrase bom bahia meanin guid bay. The name Mumbai haes been uised in the main local leids for as lang, an is ascribed tae the local goddess, Mumba (ai means mither in Marathi, the leid o the state o Maharashtra). The name o the ceety wis chynged tae Mumbai bi an act o the pairlament in 1995.

Jaloused tae hae aboot 15 meellion fowk, the ceety haes growen swith in the bygane fifty year. The main aurie cawed the Island Ceety haes the maist dear real estate in the hale o Indie. Acause o this, the ceety haes growen a lang wey intil the mainlaund baith tae the north an the east. It is no unuisual for fowk tae commute mair nor an oor tae wark ilka day. Gettin watter, pouer an fuid intil the ceety is a muckle job that's owerseen bi ceevic agencies, plannin bodies an fowk gaun aboot thair business.

Mumbai haes sister ceety agreements wi the follaein ceeties:




#Article 399: Jeddah (226 words)


Jeddah (whiles spelled Jiddah or Jedda#x202f;; ;   or , ) is a Saudi Arabie ceety locatit on the coast o the Reid Sea an is the major urban centre o wastren Saudi Arabie. It is the lairgest ceety in Makkah Province, the lairgest sea port on the Reid Sea, an the seicont lairgest ceety in Saudi Arabie efter the caipital ceety, Riyadh. The population o the ceety currently stands at ower 3.4 million. It is an important commercial hub in Saudi Arabie.

Jeddah is the principal gatewey tae Mecca, Islam's holiest ceety, which able-bodied Muslims are required tae veesit at least ance in thair lifetime. It is an aa a gateway tae Medina, the seicont holiest place in Islam.

Jeddah is the maist cosmopolitan an tolerant o aw Saudi Arabie ceeties, hostin expatriates frae aw ower the warld who hae made Jeddah thair hame. Economically, Jeddah is focussin on further developin caipital investment in scienteefic an ingineerin leadership athin Saudi Arabie, an the Middle East. Jeddah wis independently ranked 4t in the Africae / Mid-East region in terms o innovation in 2009 in the Innovation Ceeties Index.

Regionally, Jeddah is a primar resort ceety o the kintra. Jeddah wis namit a seicont-tier beta warld ceety, accordin tae Globalization an Warld Cities Study Group an Network (GaWC).

Jeddah haes 23 sister ceeties (kent as twin touns forby):




#Article 400: Saudi Arabie (231 words)


Saudi Arabie, kent offeecially as the Kinrick o Saudi Arabie (Arabic: المملكة العربية السعودية,al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Saʻūdiyya) is a Muslim kintra in the Middle East. It is a kinrick led bi the Saudi ryal faimily, cried the Hoose o Saud an aw. A lot o the warld's ile supply comes frae Saudi Arabie. Acause o this, the Saudi ryal faimily is gey wealthy.

Saudi Arabie haes ceeties that are important tae the Muslim releegion. Mony Muslims frae aroond the warld gang tae Mecca in Saudi Arabie tae mak a pilgrimage. The pilgrimage is ane o the requirements o thair releegion. Ither muckle ceeties is Riyadh, Jeddah an Dammam. The pilgrimage is cried hajj in the Arabic. A body wha maks a pilgrimage tae Mecca is cried a hajj in the Arabic leid. Fowk wha arenae Muslim are no allowed tae enter Mecca.

Saudi Arabie is hame tae the larigest mass o saund on earth, kent as the empty quarter desert. The temperatur is gey het.

Maist fowk spik the Arabic leid. Mony fowk frae ither kintras wark in Saudi Arabie. Thay are cried expatriates or expats.

The kintras o Yemen an Oman are sooth o Saudi Arabie. Saudi Arabie is wast o Qatar, the Unitit Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Iraq, an Jordan. Aa o thir kintras cept Jordan an Iraq mak the Arabian Peninsula.

The siller, or currency is cried the Saudi Riyal.




#Article 401: Maria Wetterstrand (101 words)


Ingrid Maria Wetterstrand (born 2 October 1973 in Eskilstuna, Södermanland) is a Swadish politeecian, an a member o the Riksdag in Stockholm.  She represents the Green Pairty (Miljöpartiet de Gröna) in the Riksdag.  She is ane o the twa chiefs o the pairty, alang wi Peter Eriksson. She haes been a member o the Riksdag syne 2001 an a pairty spokesperson syne 2002. 

Wetterstrand haes a maister's degree in biology frae the University o Gothenburg.

Wetterstrand is marrit tae Ville Niinistö, a Finnish politeecian representin the Green League. Their son Elias wis born in November 2004 an dochter Linnea in 2007.




#Article 402: Frisie leids (226 words)


The Frisie leids (Frisie: Frysk, Dutch: Fries, German: Friesisch) are a faimily o leids spak by the Frisie fowk o the province o Friesland in the Netherlands an in northren Germany an aw. The leid is spak by aboot hauf a million fowk. It is a Wast Germanic leid an is sib tae Scots an Inglis. Thare are three kynds o the Frisie leid; Wast-Frisie, Saterland Frisie an Nor' Frisie.

Wast-Frisie is maistly sprak in the province o Friesland (Fryslân in Wast-Frisie), in the Netherlands. It is estimatit tae hae 350,000 tae 500,000 fowk speakin it.

Saterland Frisie is sprak in the state o Lawer Saxony in Germany. It is estimatit tae hae aboot 2,000 fowk speakin it.

North Frisie is sprak in the state o Schleswig-Holstein in Germany, an haes aboot 10,000 fowk speakin it.

Saterland Frisie
Die Wänt strookede dät Wucht uum ju Keeuwe un oapede hier ap do Sooken.

Nor' Frisie
Di dreng aide dåt foomen am dåt kan än mäket har aw da siike.

Wast Frisie
De jonge streake it famke om it kin en tute har op 'e wangen.

De jongen streek het meisje langs haar kin en kuste haar op de wangen.

The laddie straikit the lassie aboot the chin an kisst her on the chowk.

The boy stroked the girl around the chin and kissed her on the cheeks.




#Article 403: Great Breetain (256 words)


Great Breetain (spelt Gret Breetain or Gryte Breitaen; Inglis: Great Britain, Scots Gaelic: Breatainn Mhòr, Welsh: Prydain Fawr, Cornish: Breten Veur) is the mukkilest iland o the Breetish Isles, the mukkilest iland in Europe an the echt-mukkilest iland in the warld. It ligs til the nor'wast o Continental Europe, wi Ireland til the wast, an maks up the lairgest pairt o the territorie o the state kent as the Unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain an Northren Ireland. It is surroond'd bi ower ae thousan wee-er ilands.

Great Breetain wis first sattilt bi fowk o the Stane Age, acause o the laich sie level.

Sin the Airn Age, the Celts haen bid on the iland, maistlie the Brythons.

The Romans rowlit Ingland atwein 43 A.D. an aboot 410 A.D..

The Anglo-Saxons fra modren Germany an Denmark invadit sooth an eist Ingland in the 5t centurie, an brocht the foond o Auld Inglis.

Vikings invadit an sattilt eistren Great Breetain in the 9t centurie an attackit monie ither auries o Breetain. In the 11t centurie the Normans, Vikings that sattilt the northren strand o Fraunce in the 10 centurie, invadit an rowlet Ingland wi heidsman William the Conqueror.

The historic kintras o Ingland, Scotland an the principalitie o Wales ar maistlins seetuate on the iland, alang wi thair caipital ceities: Lunnon, Edinburgh an Cairdiff respekivlie.

The iland wis brocht thegither unner ae croun in 1603 bi the Union o the Crouns, an unner ae pairlament in 1707 bi the Treatie o Union. See Kinrick o Great Breetain forby.




#Article 404: Video gemme (309 words)


A video gemme is an electronic gemme that involves interaction wi a uiser interface tae generate veesual feedback on a video device sic as a TV screen or computer monitor. The wurd video in video gemme tradeetionally referred tae a raster display device, but as o the 2000s, it implees ony teep o display device that can produce twa- or three-dimensional eemages. Some theorists categorise video gemmes as an airt form, but this designation is controversial.

The electronic seestems uised tae play vidi farted iot and it smells so goodtae smaw haundheld computin devices. Specialised video gemmes sic as arcade gemmes, in that the video gemme components are hoosed in a muckle, teepically cunyie-operatit chassis, while common in the 1980s in video arcades, hae gradually declined due tae the widespread availability o affordable hame video gemme consoles (e.g., PlayStation 4, Xbox One an Nintendo Wii U) an video gemmes on desktop an laptap computers an smairtphones.

The input device used for gemmes, the gemme controller, varies across platforms. Common controllers include gemmepads, joysticks, moose devices, keybuirds, the titchscreens o mobile devices, an buttons, or even, wi the Kinect sensor, a person's haunds an bouk. Players teepically view the gemme on a video screen or telly or computer monitor, or whiles on virtual reality heid-moontit display goggles. Thare are eften game soond effects, muisic an, in the 2010s, vyce actor lines that come frae loudspeakers or heidphones. Some gemmes in the 2000s include haptic, vibration-creautin effects, force feedback peripherals an virtual reality heidsets. In the 2010s, the video gemme industry is o increasin commercial importance, wi growthe driven pairteecularly bi the emergin Asie mercats an mobile gemmes, that are played on smairtphones. As o 2015, video gemmes generatit sales o USD 74 billion annually warldwide, an war the third-mucklest segment in the U.S. entertainment mercat, behind broadcast an cable TV.




#Article 405: Jacques Chirac (170 words)


Jacques René Chirac (; ; born 29 November 1932; deed 26 September 2019) wis a French politeecian who served as Preses o Fraunce frae 1995 tae 2007. He previously servit as Mayor o Paris an as Prime meenister o Fraunce.

Born the 29t November 1932 in the Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire clinic service (in Paris), Jacques René Chirac (as full name) son o Abel François Chirac (1898 - 1968), bank-employee an administrator in the Aeronautic societie SNCAN an o Marie-Louise Valette (1902 - 1973). Baith come frae Correzian families whilka hae affore probably participatit tae the French Revolution.

Young Jacques Chirac begins studyin in the Primary School o Sainte-Féréole in Correze frae 1940 tae 1943 affore gaun tae Paris, in the lycée (hie-schuil) Carnot an tae the prestidgious hie-schuil Louis-le-Grand. Efter his final exam, obtainit in 1950 in « elementary mathematics » wi mention « guid eneuch », he warks thrie months in a boat, the Capitaine Saint-Martin, altho his fither disagreed. In Fraunce again he maks a year o Scientific Studies.




#Article 406: Alaska (108 words)


Alaska (IPA: [əˈlæskə], Roushie: Аляска) is a state in the Unitit States o Americae, that is in the northwastern maist pairt o North Americae. It is the mucklest U.S. state an wis bocht frae Roushie. The laund in Alaska is kiverd wi muntains an can git fell cauld. The mucklest ceety in Alaska is Anchorage. The name Alaska comes frae the Aleut wird Alyeska, meanin Laund that isna an island. Alaska haes mair coast nor aw o the tither U.S. states thegither. It is muckler nor aw o the kintras in the warld cep the 18 mucklest anes. The state is neist tae Canadae an the Artic Ocean.




#Article 407: Sky Odyssey (102 words)


Sky Odyssey is a action/adventur flicht video gemme for the Sony PlayStation 2. It wis made by the video gemme makker Cross an wis selt in in the year 2000 an wis ane o the first Playstation gemmes.The gemme's story is a Indiana Jones-like adventur whaur the body playin the game flees a airieplane ettlin tae gaither bits o a cairt. The gemme's muisic made by Kō Ōtani that made the muisic for Shadow of the Colossus.
It is ane o the few video gemmes that ye can flee the Japanese Shinden and Shinden Kai, the airieplane shawn on the game's kistie.




#Article 408: Alexander the Great (123 words)


Alexander the Great (Julie 20 or 26, 356 BC - Juin 10 323 BC) wis a Macedonian king. He wis learnt maist o his skeels in Athens durin his bairnheid. He is kent for his meelitary skeels. He invadit a muckle empire cried Persie, an gaed on tae invade pairts o Central Asie an Indie. He is aft said tae be ane o the greatest military commanders in heestory, alang wi Hannibal, Julius Caesar, Genghis Khan, Subutai, Napoleon I o Fraunce, an ithers. Bi the time o his daith he had owerhailt maist o the Middle Eastern yird kent tae Europeans, alang wi a muckle pairt o Central Asie that includit Persia, Egypt, an Asie Minor. He dee'd in Babylon in 323 BC. 




#Article 409: Chelsea F.C. (272 words)


Chelsea Fitbaa Club () is a Inglis profeesional fitbaw club based in wast Lunnon. Foondit in 1905, they play in the Premier League an hae spent maist o their history in the top tier o Inglis fitbaw. Chelsea hae been Inglis champions fower times, FA Cup winners sax times an League Cup winners fower times. They hae an aa been successful in Europe, winnin the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup twice.

The club haed their first major success in 1955, whan they wan the league championship. Chelsea wan several cup competitions during the 1960s an 1970s but, efter that, didnae win anither major title till 1997. The past decade haes been the maist successful period in Chelsea’s history, cappit bi winnin Premier League titles in 2005, 2006 an 2010, an reakin their first UEFA Champions League final in 2008.

In maugre o their name, the club arnae based in Chelsea, but in neibourin Fulham. The club's hame is the 41,841 capacity Stamford Bridge fitbaw stadium in Fulham, whaur they hae played syne their establishment. In 2003, they wur bovht bi Roushie ile magnate Roman Abramovich.

Chelsea's regular kit colours is ryal blae sarks an shorts wi white socks, the combination uised syne the 1960s. The club crest haes been chynged several times in a mynt tae modernise or rebrand; the crest thay hae thir dyas, featurin a ceremonial lion haudin a staff, is a modified version o ane first adoptit in the 1950s. The club haes sustained the fift heichmaist average aw-time attendance in Inglis fitbaw. Their average hame gate for the 2009-10 season wis 41,423, the fift heichmaist in the Premier League.




#Article 410: Gowf (731 words)


 
Gowf (Inglis: Golf) is a sport whaur the body playin the gemme tries tae dunt a smaw baw intae a bore at the end o a field cried a gowf coorse. Gowf wis first played in the Netherlands an Scotland.

Fowk haes lang raxt their harns ower hou gowf cam aboot, at the hinderend naebody will richt ken. Gowf wis ane o the mony baw an stick gemmes that wis played oot-throu the middle ages. Thir can be sindert intae twa-three groups, sic as duntin a stelt baw wi a stick (gowf, frae aulder Dutch kolf, a club), stick tae stick gemmes sic as shinty or caitch or duntin a muivin baw wi a stick (cricket or basebaw): Frae thon its nae surpreese tae find that mony sindry sorts o baw an stick gemmes haes been played oot-throu heestory at different times in different kintras.

Whit maiters maist is no sae muckle whaur an whan a parteecular gemme stairtit but whaur it tak ruit an frae there spreid tae ither airts. Wi sicna sicht it can be seen that gowf cam tae the fore in middle ages Scotland an spreid tae the lave o the warld in the 18t century. It is tae Scotland that the cultural tradeetion o gowf is ocht.

The ettle o gowf is tae putt the baw intae a hole in the grund whauras ither baw an stick gemmes is ettelt at winnin tae a dale or tairget abuin the grund, mony o thir played in weel merkit coorts, whaur the ettle is tae dunt the baw throu a gird or siclike, Ither gemmes is played athort tha kinta-side wi trees or doors as the tairget. Dutch 'kolf' is played athort the kintra-side, in toun gates an on ice ettlin tae win at a tairget abuin the grund.

Gowf is played on a bit grund cried a gowf coorse. A coorse conseests o a raw o wee bores, ilk ane haein a teein area, fairwey, roch an ither hinderances, an the green wi the pin an cup. A teepical gowf coorse for ordinar haes aichteen bores, but mony haes juist nine.

Ilka gemme o gowf is adae wi playing a nummer o bores in a gien order. A teepical roond conseests o 18 bores played gaun by the coorse layoot. On a nine-bore coorse, gaun roond twice gies a roond. A bore or 'hole' in gowf conseests o duntin a baw frae a tee in the teein box (a bit grund merkit for the first shot at a bore) cried a tee shot, ance the baw comes tae rest, duntin it ower. This cairies on till the baw is in the cup. Ance the baw is on the green (A bit grund wi weel mawen girse) the baw is for ordinar puttit alang the grund intae the bore. The ettle bein that the baw come tae bides in the bore wi sae few straiks as possible. This micht be hindert by hinderances, sic as bunkers an dubs. In maist ordinar gemmes, ilka player plays their baw frae the tee till it is puttit intae the bore.

Players can walk or drive ower the coorse in wee motor cairts, aither alane or in groups o twa, three, or fower, whiles convoyed by caddies that cairies an mauns the players' graith an gies them advisement.

Ilka player aften acts as scorer for ae ither player in the group, that is, they record the score on a score caird. In straik play the score conseests o the nummer o straiks played an ony penalty straiks gotten. Penalty straiks isna richt straiks but penalty pynts that's eikit tae the score for brakkin the rules or daein things a player shoudna.

Paur A bore is clessifee'd by its paur, the nummer o straiks a skeelie gowfer needs tae pit the baw in the bore.

Penalties Penalty straiks is coontit in certain seetiations. Maist aften whan a player haes duntit the baw some place whaur they canna or winna play the baa as it is, for example in a watter-hinderance, or acause they'v tint their baw (ootwi the boonds (OB)) an maunt play anither. Penalty straikes is coontit as an extrae straik at the aw. Ony rule brakkin can lead tae penalty straiks.

Scorin In ilka form o play, the ettle is tae play sae few straiks per roond as a body can.




#Article 411: Cat (445 words)


The domestic cat (Felis catus or Felis silvestris catus) is a smaw, teepically furry, domesticatit, an carnivorous mammal. Thay are eften cried hoose cats when kept as induir pets or simply cats when thare is no need tae distinguish them frae ither felids an felines. Cats are aften vailyit bi humans for companionship an thair abeelity tae hunt vermin.

Cats are seemilar in anatomy tae the ither felids, wi strang, flexible bodies, quick reflexes, sharp retractable claws, an teeth adaptit tae killin smaw prey. Cat senses fit a crepuscular an predatory ecological niche. Cats can hear soonds too faint or too heich in frequency for human lugs, sic as those made bi mice an ither smaw ainimals. Thay can see in near darkness. Lik maist ither mammals, cats hae puirer colour veesion an a better sense o smell nor humans.

Despite bein solitar hunters, cats are a social species an cat communication includes the uise o a variety o vocalisations (mewin, purrin, trillin, hissin, growlin, an gruntin), as well as cat pheromones an teeps o cat-speceefic body leid.

Cats hae a heich breedin rate. Unner controlled breedin, thay can be bred an shawn as registered pedigree pets, a hobby kent as cat fancy. Failyie tae control the breedin o pet cats bi neuterin an the abandonment o umwhile hoosehauld pets haes resultit in lairge nummers o feral cats warldwide, requirin population control. This haes contreibutit, alang wi habitat destruction an ither factors, tae extinction o mony bird species. Cats hae been kent tae extirpate a bird species within a speceefic region an mey hae contreibutit tae extinction o isolatit island populations. Cats are thocht tae be primarily, thou nae solely, responsible for the extinction o 33 species o birds, an the presence o feral an free rangin cats maks some locations unsuitable for attemptit species reestablishment in itherwise suitable locations.

Syne cats war veneratit in auncient Egyp, thay war commonly believed tae hae been domesticatit thare, but thare mey hae been instances o domestication as early as the Neolithic frae aroond 9,500 year ago (7,500 BC). A genetic study in 2007 concludit that domestic cats are descendit frae African wildcats (Felis silvestris lybica), havin diverged aroond 8,000 BC in Wast Asie. Cats are the maist popular pet in the warld, an are nou foond in awmaist every place whaur humans live.

Thare are mair nor 70 cat breeds aroond the warld. Different associations proclaim different nummers accordin tae thair staundarts. The Internaitional Progressive Cat Breeders Alliance (IPCBA) recognises 73 cat breeds while TICA (The Internaitional Cat Association) recognises 58, CFA (The Cat Fanciers' Association) recognises 44 an  Federation Internaitional Feline (FIFE) recognises 43 cat breeds.




#Article 412: Kelpie (456 words)


The kelpie is a supernaitural shape-shiftin watter horse frae Celtic fowklair that's thocht tae haunt the rivers an lochs o Scotland an Ireland. In Orkney, a sib beastie wis cried the Nuggle, an in Shetland a sib beastie wis cried the Shoopiltee. Ye'll find it in Scandinavie fowklair an aw. In Swaden it's kent bi the name Bäckahästen, the burnie horse. In Norrowey it's cried nøkken, whaur it aft uises the horse shape, but is no it's true shape.

In Scots fowklair, a kelpie wad wyle fowk ontil its rig an then douk intil a deep loch tae cantriplie saunt.  A kelpie's helter cuid wark cantrips gin it wis stealt. On the ither haund, a human helter on a kelpie cuid garr it tae wark fir a body.

In Scandinavie, the burnie horse wis a transformation o the Nix, a watter speerit in the shape o a man. It wis aft descrievit as a muckle white horse that wad kythe near watter, parteecular in roukie wather. Onybody wha climmit ontil its rig widnae be able to get aff agin.  The horse wad lowp intil the river, drounin the rider. The burnie horse cuid be harnisht an gart tae pleuch an aw, aither acause it wis ettlin tae geg a bodie or acause the body had geggit the horse tae dae it.
Whiles, the kelpie had the shape o a rochle hairie man wha wid champ an smush traivelers, bit it maistlies teuk the shape o a bonnie tame horse staunin bi a burn. Gin onybody muntit it, it wad chairge intil the deepest pairt o the watter, doukin an takkin the rider wi it. They wad whiles interbreed wi normal horse, an the bairns were thocht ta be guid fast horse. The kelpie wis aye thocht tae spae o  storms bi wailin an yowlin. Whiles, kelpies cuid be freenly. The folktale The Kelpie's Wife descrieve ane in Loch Garve, Ross-shire, wha hud a human wife. The Jethro Tull sang Kelpie, frae the 1988 album 20 Years Of Jethro Tull, descrieves a youthie wifie temptit awa bi a kelpie.  

Bi the wey o the Swadish natralist an writer Bengt Sjögren (1980), the modren thocht in loch monsters in, say, Loch Ness, is tae dae wi the auld leegends o kelpies. Sjögren claims that the stories o loch-monsters hae chynged throu historie. Aulder stories aft talk aboot horse-like monsters, bit mair modren stories aft have mair man-keeper, lizard or dinosaur-like-shapes, an Bengt Sjögren thinks that the leegends o kelpies chynged intil the modren leegends o loch-monsters whaur the monsters chynged the appearance tae a mair real an modren form syne the findin o dinosaurs an muckle watter-reptiles frae the horse-like watter-kelpie tae a dinosaur-like reptile, aft a plesiosaur.




#Article 413: Stockholm (234 words)


 

Stockholm is the caipital o Swaden an constitutes the maist populatit urban area in Scandinavie.  Stockholm is the maist muckle ceety in Swaden, wi a population o 851,155 in the municipality (2010), 1.37 million in the urban area (2010), an aroond 2.1 million in the 6,519 km2 (2,517.00 sq mi)  metropolitan area (2010). As o 2010, the Stockholm metropolitan area is hame tae approximately 22% o Swaden's population.

Foondit no later than circa 1250, possibly as early as 1187, Stockholm haes lang been ane o Swaden's cultural, media, poleetical, an economic centres. Its strategic location on 14 islands on the sooth-central east coast o Swaden at the mooth o Lake Mälaren, bi the Stockholm airchipelago, haes been historically important. Stockholm haes been nominatit bi GaWC as a global ceety, wi a rankin o Alpha-. In The 2008 Global Cities Index, Stockholm rankt 24t in the warld, 10t in Europe, an first in Scandinavie. Stockholm is kent for its beauty, its biggins an airchitectur, its abundant clean an open watter, an its mony pairks. It is whiles referred tae as Venice o the North.

Stockholm is the steid o the naitional Swadish govrenment, the Riksdag (parliament), an the offeecial residence o the Swadish monarch as well as the prime meenister. Syne 1980, the monarch haes residit at Drottningholm Palace ootside o Stockholm an uises the Ryal Palace o Stockholm as his wirkplace an offeecial residence.




#Article 414: Budapest (134 words)


Budapest (, an aa , ; ; ) is the caipital o Hungary.  As the lairgest ceety o Hungary, it serves as the kintra's principal political, cultural, commercial, industrial, an transportation centre. In 2010, Budapest haed 1,721,556 indwallers, doun frae its 1980 peak of 2.06 million. The Budapest Commuter Aurie is hame tae 3,271,110 fowk. The ceety covers an aurie o 525 square kilometres (202.7 sq mi) athin the ceety limits. Budapest became a single ceety occupyin baith banks of the river Danube wi a unification on 17 November 1873 o richt (wast)-bank Buda an Óbuda wi left (east)-bank Pest.

Budapest is twinned wi:

Some o the ceety's destricts are an aa twinned tae smaw ceeties or destricts o ither big ceeties, for details see the airticle
Leet o deestricts an touns in Budapest.




#Article 415: Kyiv (339 words)


Kyiv or Kiev is the caipital an the lairgest ceety o Ukraine, locatit in the north central pairt o the kintra on the Dnieper River.

Kyiv is an important industrial, scienteefic, educational an cultural centre o Eastren Europe. It is hame tae mony hie-tech industries, heichher education institutions an warld-famous historical laundmerks. The ceety haes an extensive infrastructure an heichlie developed seestem o public transport, includin the Kiev Metro. Kyiv wis clessifee'd as a Beta global ceety as o 2004.

The name Kyiv is said tae derive frae the name o Kyi, ane o fower legendary foonders o the ceety (brithers Kyi, Shchek, Khoryv, an sister Lybid). Durin its history, Kyiv, ane o the auldest ceeties in Eastren Europe, passed throu several stages o great prominence an relative obscurity. The ceety mey hae been foondit in the 5t century as a tradin post, aiblins pairt o the land o the early Slavs. It gradually acquired eminence as the centre o the East Slavic civilization, becomin in the tent tae twalt centuries a poleetical an cultural caipital o Rus', a medieval East Slavic state. Completely destroyed durin the Mongol invasion in 1240, the ceety lost maist o its influence for the centuries tae come. It wis a provincial caipital o marginal importance in the ootskirts o the territories controlled bi its pouerful neighbours; first the Grand Duchy o Lithuanie, follaed bi Poland an Roushie.

The ceety prospered again durin the Roushie Empire's industrial revolution in the late 19t century. Efter the turbulent period follaein the Roushie Revolution o 1917, frae 1921 onwards Kyiv wis an important ceety o the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, an, frae 1934, its caipital. Durin Warld War II, the ceety again suffered significant damage, but quickly recovered in the post-war years remainin the third lairgest ceety o the Soviet Union. Follaein the collapse o the Soviet Union an the Ukrainian unthirldom o 1991, Kyiv remained the caipital o Ukraine.

Kyiv is twinned wi:

Kiev Peninsula in Graham Land, Antarctica is named efter the ceety o Kiev.




#Article 416: Berlin (1901 words)


Berlin is the caipital ceety o Germany an is ane o the 16 states o Germany. Wi a population o 3.45 million fowk, Berlin is Germany's lairgest ceety. It is the seicont maist populous ceety proper an the seivent maist populous urban aurie in the European Union.

The origin o the name Berlin is uncertain. It mey hae its ruits in the leid o Wast Slavic indwallers o the aurie o the day's Berlin, an mey be relatit tae the Auld Polabian stem berl-/birl- (swamp). Folk etymology connects the name tae the German wird for beir, Bär. A beir an aa appears in the coat o airms o the ceety.

The earliest evidence o settlements in the aurie o the day's Berlin are a widden rod datit frae approximately 1192 an leftowers o widden hoosepairts datit tae 1174 foond in a 2012 diggin in Berlin Mitte. The first written records o touns in the aurie o present-day Berlin date frae the late 12t century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 an Köpenick in 1209, althou thir auries did nae jyn Berlin till 1920. The central pairt o Berlin can be traced back tae twa touns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document, an Berlin, athort the Spree in what is nou cried the Nikolaiviertel, is referenced in a document frae 1244. The umwhile (1237) is considered tae be the foondin date o the ceety. The twa touns ower time formed close economic an social ties. In 1307 thay formed an alliance wi a common external policy, thair internal admeenistrations still bein separatit.

In 1415, Frederick I acame the elector o the Margraviate o Brandenburg, which he ruled till 1440. During the 15t century his successors wad establish Berlin-Cölln as caipital o the margraviate, an subsequent members o the Hohenzollern faimily ruled till 1918 in Berlin, first as electors o Brandenburg, then as kings o Proushie, an eventually as German emperors. In 1443, Frederick II Airntuith stairtit the construction o a new ryal palace in the twin ceety Berlin-Cölln. The protests o the toun ceetizens against the biggin culminatit in 1448, in the Berlin Indignation (Berliner Unwille). This protest wis nae successfu, houever, an the ceetizenry lost mony o its poleetical an economic privileges. Efter the ryal palace wis finished in 1451, it gradually came intae uise. Frae 1470, wi the new elector Albrecht III Achilles, Berlin-Cölln acame the new ryal residence. Offeecially, the Berlin-Cölln palace acame permanent residence o the Brandenburg electors o the Hohenzollerns frae 1486, when John Cicero came tae power. Berlin-Cölln, houiver, haed tae gie up its status as a free Hanseatic ceety. In 1539, the electors an the ceety offeecially became Lutheran.

The Thirty Years' War atween 1618 an 1648 devastatit Berlin. Ane third o its hooses war damaged or destroyed, an the ceety lost hauf o its population. Frederick William, kent as the Great Elector, that haed succeedit his faither George William as ruler in 1640, initiatit a policy o promotin immigration an releegious tolerance. Wi the Edict o Potsdam in 1685, Frederick William offered asylum tae the French Huguenots. Bi 1700, approximately 30 percent o Berlin's residents war French, acause o the Huguenot immigration. Mony ither immigrants came frae Bohemie, Poland, an Salzburg.

Syne 1618, the Margraviate o Brandenburg haed been in personal union wi the Duchy o Proushie. In 1701, houever, the dual state formed the Kinrick o Proushie, as Frederick III, Elector o Brandenburg nou crouned himsel as king Frederick I in Proushie. Berlin acame the caipital o the new Kinrick. This wis a successfu attempt tae centralise the caipital in the very ootspread state, an it wis the first time the ceety began tae grow. In 1709 Berlin merged wi the fower ceeties o Cölln, Friedrichswerder, Friedrichstadt an Dorotheenstadt unner the name Berlin, Haupt- und Residenzstadt Berlin.

In 1740, Frederick II, kent as Frederick the Great (1740–1786), came tae pouer. Unner the rule o Frederick II, Berlin acame a centre o the Enlichtenment. Follaein Fraunce's veectory in the War o the Fowert Coaleetion, Napoleon Bonaparte mairched intae Berlin in 1806, but grantit sel-govrenment tae the ceety. In 1815, the ceety acame pairt o the new Province o Brandenburg.

The Industrial Revolution transformed Berlin during the 19t century; the ceety's economy an population expandit dramatically, an it acame the main railwey hub an economic centre o Germany. Addeetional suburbs suin developed an increased the aurie an population o Berlin. In 1861, neighborin suburbs includin Wedding, Moabit an several ithers war incorporatit intae Berlin. In 1871, Berlin acame caipital o the newly foondit German Empire. In 1881, it acame a ceety destrict separate frae Brandenburg.

In the early 20t century, Berlin haed acome a fertile grund for the German Expressionist movement. In fields such as airchitectur, pentin an cinema new forms o airteestic styles war inventit. At the end o Warld War I in 1918, a republic wis proclaimed bi Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag biggin. In 1920, the Greater Berlin Act incorporatit dozens o suburban ceeties, veelages, an estates aroond Berlin intae an expandit ceety. The act increased the aurie o Berlin frae . The population almaist doubled an Berlin haed a population o aroond fower million. During the Weimar era, Berlin unnerwent poleetical unrest due tae economic uncertainties, but an aa acame a renained centre o the Roarin Twenties.  The metropolis experienced its heyday as a major warld caipital an wis kent for its leadership roles in science, technology, the humanities, ceety plannin, film, heicher eddication, govrenment, an industries. Albert Einstein rose tae public prominence during his years in Berlin, bein awairdit the Nobel Prize for Pheesics in 1921.

In 1933, Adolf Hitler an the Nazi Pairty came tae pouer. NSDAP rule effectively destroyed Berlin's Jewish community, which haed nummered 160,000, representin ane-third o aw Jews in the kintra. Berlin's Jewish population fell tae aboot 80,000 as a result o emigration atween 1933 an 1939. Efter Kristallnacht in 1938, thoosands o the ceety's persecutit groups war imprisoned in the nearby Sachsenhausen concentration camp or, stairtin in early 1943, war shipped tae death camps, such as Auschwitz. During Warld War II, lairge pairts o Berlin war destroyed in the 1943–45 air raids an during the Battle o Berlin. Aroond 125,000 ceevilians war killed. Efter the end o the war in Europe in 1945, Berlin received lairge nummers o refugees frae the Eastren provinces. The victorious pouers dividit the ceety intae fower sectors, analogous tae the occupation zones intae which Germany wis dividit. The sectors o the Wastren Allies (the Unitit States, the Unitit Kinrick an Fraunce) formed Wast Berlin, while the Soviet sector formed East Berlin.

Aw fower Allies shared admeenistrative responsibilities for Berlin. Houever, in 1948, when the Wastren Allies extendit the siller reform in the Wastren zones o Germany tae the three wastren sectors o Berlin, the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the access routes tae an frae Wast Berlin, which lay entirely inside Soviet-controlled territory. The Berlin airlift, conductit bi the three wastren Allies, owercame this blockade bi supplyin fuid an ither supplies tae the ceety frae Juin 1948 tae Mey 1949. In 1949, the Federal Republic o Germany wis foondit in Wast Germany an eventually includit aw o the American, Breetish, an French zones, excludin those three kintras' zones in Berlin, while the Marxist-Leninist German Democratic Republic wis proclaimed in East Germany. Wast Berlin offeecially remained an occupied ceety, but it poleetically wis aligned wi the Federal Republic o Germany despite Wast Berlin's geografic isolation. Airline service tae Wast Berlin wis grantit anly tae American, Breetish, an French airlines.

The foondin o the twa German states increased Cauld War tensions. Wast Berlin wis surroondit bi East German territory, an East Germany proclaimed the Eastren pairt as its caipital, a muiv that wis nae recognised bi the wastren powers. East Berlin included maist o the historic centre o the ceety. The Wast German govrenment established itsel in Bonn. In 1961, East Germany began the biggin o the Berlin Waw atween East an Wast Berlin, an events escalatit tae a tank staundoff at Checkpoint Charlie. Wast Berlin wis nou de facto a pairt o Wast Germany wi a unique legal status, while East Berlin wis de facto a pairt o East Germany. John F. Kennedy gae his Ich bin ein Berliner – speech in 1963 unnerlinin the US support for the Wastren pairt o the ceety. Berlin wis completely dividit. Althou it wis possible for Wastreners tae pass frae ane tae the ither side throu strictly controlled checkpynts, for maist Eastreners traivel tae West Berlin or Wast Germany wis prohibitit. In 1971, a Fower-Pouer agreement guaranteed access tae an frae Wast Berlin bi caur or train throu East Germany.

In 1989, wi the end o the Cauld War an pressur frae the East German population, the Berlin Waw fell on 9 November an wis subsequently maistly demolished. The day, the East Side Gallery preserves a lairge portion o the Waw. On 3 October 1990, the twa pairts o Germany war reunified as the Federal Republic o Germany, an Berlin again acame the offeecial German caipital. In 1991, the German Pairlament, the Bundestag, votit tae muive the seat o the (Wast) German caipital frae Bonn tae Berlin, which wis completit in 1999. Berlin's 2001 admeenistrative reform merged several destricts. The nummer o boroughs wis reduced frae 23 tae 12. In 2006, the FIFA Warld Cup Final wis held in Berlin.

Berlin is subdividit intae twal burghs (Bezirke), doun frae 23 burghs afore Berlin's 2001 admeenistrative reform. Each borough contains a nummer o localities (Ortsteile), which aften hae historic ruits in aulder municipalities that predate the formation o Greater Berlin on 1 October 1920 an became urbanized an incorporatit intae the ceety. Mony residents strangly identifee wi thair localities or burghs. At present Berlin consists o 95 localities, which are commonly made up o several ceety neighborhuids—cried Kiez in the Berlin dialect—representin sma residential auries.

Each burgh is govrened bi a burgh cooncil (Bezirksamt) consistin o five cooncilors (Bezirksstadträte) an a burgh mayor (Bezirksbürgermeister). The burgh cooncil is electit bi the burgh assembly (Bezirksverordnetenversammlung). The burghs o Berlin are no independent municipalities, housomeivver.  The pouer o burgh govrenments is limitit an subordinate tae the Senate o Berlin. The burgh mayors form the cooncil o mayors (Rat der Bürgermeister), led bi the ceety's govrenin mayor, which advises the senate.

The localities hae nae local govrenment bodies, an the admeenistrative duties o the umwhile locality representative, the Ortsvorsteher, wur taken ower bi the burgh mayors.

Berlin maintains offeecial pairtnerships wi 17 ceeties. Town twinnin atween Berlin an ither ceeties began wi Los Angeles in 1967. East Berlin's pairtnerships wur canceled at the time o German reunification an later pairtially reestablished. Wast Berlin's pairtnerships haed previously been restrictit tae the borough level. Durin the Cauld War era, the pairtnerships haed reflectit the different power blocs, wi Wast Berlin pairtnerin wi caipitals in the Wast, an East Berlin maistly pairtnerin wi ceeties frae the Warsaw Pact an its allies.

Thare are several joint projects wi mony ither ceeties, such as Copenhagen, Helsinki, Johannesburg, Shanghai, Seoul, Sofia, Sydney, an Vienna. Berlin participates in internaitional ceety associations such as the Union o the Caipitals o the European Union, Eurocities, Netwirk o European Ceeties o Cultur, Metropolis, Summit Conference o the Warld's Major Ceeties, Conference o the Warld's Caipital Ceeties. Berlin's offeecial sister ceeties are:




#Article 417: Moscow (805 words)


Moscow is the caipital, the maist populous ceety, an the maist populous federal subject o Roushie. The ceety is a major poleetical, economic, cultural, releegious, financial, educational, an transportation centre o Roushie an the warld, a global ceety. Moscow is the maist populous ceety on the continent o Europe an the seivent lairgest ceety proper in the warld, a megaceety. The population o Moscow (as o 1 Januar 2010) is 10,563,038.

Moscow is situatit on the Moskva River in the Central Federal Destrict o European Roushie. In the course o its history the ceey haes served as the caipital o a progression o states, frae the medieval Grand Duchy o Moscow an the subsequent Tsardom o Roushie tae the Soviet Union. Moscow is the site o the Moscow Kremlin, an auncient fortress that is the day the residence o the Roushie Preses an o the executive branch o the Govrenment o Roushie. The Kremlin is an' a' ane o several Warld Heritage Sites in the ceety. Baith chambers o the Roushie parliament (the State Duma an the Federation Cooncil) an' a' sit in Moscow.

The ceety is served bi an extensive transit netwirk, which includes fower internaitional airports, nine railwey terminals, an the Moscow Metro, seicont anerlie tae Tokyo in terms o ridership an recognised as ane o the ceety's laundmerks due tae the rich an varied airchitecture o its 182 stations.

Ower time, Moscow haes acquired a nummer o epithets, maist referrin tae its size an preeminent status athin the naition: The Third Rome (), Whitestane (), The First Throne (), The Fowerty Fowerties ().

The demonym for a Moscow resident is Moskvitch.

Accordin tae the results o the 2010 Census, the population o Moscow wis 11,503,501; up frae 10,382,754 recordit in the 2002 Census.

At the time o the offeecial 2010 Census, the ethnic makup o the ceety wis:

Moscow is the seat o pouer for the Roushie Federation. At the centre o the ceety, in Central Admeenistrative Okrug, is the Moscow Kremlin, which hooses the hame o the Preses o Roushie as well as mony o the facilities for the naitional govrenment. This includes numerous military heidquarters an the heidquarters o the Moscow Military Destrict. Moscow, lik wi ony naitional caipital, is an aw the host o aw the foreign embassies an diplomats representin a multitude o naitions in Roushie. Moscow is designatit as ane o anerlie twa Federal ceeties o Roushie (the ither ane bein Saunt Petersburg). Amang the 83 federal subjects o Roushie, Moscow represents the maist populatit ane an the smawest ane in terms o aurie. Lastly, Moscow is locatit athin the central economic region, ane o twal regions athin Russia wi seemilar economic goals.

The entire ceety o Moscow is heidit bi ane  (Sergey Sobyanin). The ceety o Moscow is dividit intae 12 admeenistrative okrugs an 146 destricts.

The Roushie caipital's specific toun-plannin development began tae shaw as early as the 12t century, when the ceety wis foondit. The central pairt o Moscow grew bi consolidatin wi suburbs in line wi the medieval principles o urban development, when strang fortress waws wad gradually gird alang the circle streets o adjacent new settlements. The first circular defence waws set the trajectory o Moscow's rings, layin the grundwirk for futur toun-plannin o the Roushie caipital.

The follaein fortifications servit as the ceety's circular defence bundaries at some pynt in history: the Kremlin waws, Zemlyanoy Gorod (earthwirk toun), the Kamer-Kollezhsky Rampart, the Garden Ring, an the smaw railwey ring. The Moscow Automobile Ring Road (MKAD) haes been Moscow's bundary syne 1960. An aw in the form o a circle are the main Moscow subway line, the Ring Line, an the sae-cried Third Automobile Ring, which wis completit in 2005. Hence, the characteristic radial-circle plannin continues tae define Moscow's further development. Housomeivver, contemporary Moscow haes an aw engulft a nummer o territories ootside the MKAD, sic as Solntsevo, Butovo, an the toun o Zelenograd.

Aw admeenistrative okrugs an destricts hae thair awn coats o airms an flags as well as the heid offeecials.

In addition tae the destricts, thare are Territorial Units wi Special Status. Thir uisually include auries wi sma or nae permanent populations, sic as the case wi the All-Russia Exhibition Center, the Botanical Garden, lairge pairks, an industrial zones. In recent years, some territories hae been mergit wi different destricts. Thare are nae ethnic-specific regions in Moscow, as in the Cheenatouns that exist in some North American an East Asie ceeties. Awtho destricts are no designated bi income, as wi maist ceeties, those auries that are closer tae the ceety center, metro stations or green zones are considered mair prestigious.

Moscow an aw hosts some o the govrenment bodies o Moscow Oblast, awtho the ceety itsel is admeenistratively separate frae the oblast.

Moscow is twinned wi the follaein ceeties:




#Article 418: Madrid (262 words)


Madrid (pronoonced: “mah-DRID” or /məˈdrɪd/) is the caipital an mucklest ceety o Spain. The caipital uised tae be Valladolid till 1561.

Madrid is in the middle o Spain, in the Commonty o Madrid. This commonty is a muckle area whilk includes the ceety as weel as smaw touns an veelages ootwi the ceety. 7 million fowk stay in the commonty. Mair nor 3 million stay in the ceety itself. At 655 m (2,100 ft) abuin sea level, it is the heichest caipital o ony European kintra. It haes twa fitbaa teams cried Real Madrid an Atlético Madrid.

Madrid wis ruled bi the Romans frae the 2nt hunderyear. Efter 711AD, it wis ringit bi the Moors. Fae 1083, Catholic keengs ruled the aurie again. Bi the mid-16t hunderyear it haed acome the caipital o a vera muckle empire. Spain wis ruled bi monarchs frae the Hoose o Habsburg, then the Hoose o Bourbon. Efter the Spaingie Ceevil War, it wis ruled bi a dictator (Francisco Franco) til the mid-1970s whan it became a democracy.

As it is the caipital ceety, Madrid is whaur the monarch lives an whaur the govrenment meets an aw.

Madrid is the financial centre o Spain. Mony muckle businesses hae thair main offices thare.

Tho it is a modren ceety, a fair wheen o its history can be seen an felt as a bodie walks alang the streets an in the muckle squares o the ceety. Thare bonnie pairks, famous biggins, airt galleries an concert haws. The simmer months is vera het an the winter months is vera cauld.




#Article 419: Washington, D.C. (389 words)


Washington, D.C. (), formally the Destrict o Columbie an commonly referred tae as Washington, the Destrict, or simply D.C., is the caipital o the Unitit States, foondit on Julie 16, 1790. Article Ane o the Unitit States Constitution provides for a federal destrict, clear frae the states, tae serve as the permanent naitional caipital. The Ceety o Washington wis oreeginally a separate municipality wi'in the federal territory till an act o Congress in 1871 establisht a single, unifeed municipal govrenment for the hale Destrict. It is for this raison that the ceety, while legally namit the Destrict o Columbie, is kent as Washington, D.C. Namit in honour o George Washington, the ceety skares its name wi the U.S. state o Washington locatit on the kintra's Paceefic coast.

The Destrict is locatit on the north bank o the Potomac River an is surroondit bi the states o Virginia tae the soothwast an Maryland tae the ither sides. The ceety haes a resident population o 599,657; acause o commuters frae the surroondin suburbs, its population rises tae ower ane million durin the wirkweek. The Washington Metropolitan Aurie, o whilk the Destrict is a pairt, haes a population o 5.4 million, the aicht-lairgest metropolitan aurie in the kintra.

The centres o aw three brainches o the federal govrenment o the Unitit States are locatit in the Destrict, as are mony o the naition's moniments an museums. Washington, D.C. is hame tae 174 foreign embassies as weel as the heidquarters o the Warld Bank, the Internaitional Monetary Fund (IMF), the Organisation o American States (OAS), the Inter-American Development Bank, an the Pan American Healt Organisation (PAHO). The heidquarters o ither institutions sic as tred unions, lobbyin groups, an perfaisional associes are locatit in the Destrict forby.

Washington, D.C., is govrenit bi a mayor an a 13-memmer ceety cooncil. Housomiver, the Unitit States Congress haes supreme authority ower the ceety an mey owerturn local laws. Residents o the Destrict tharefore hae less sel-govrenance than residents o the states. The Destrict haes a nane-votin, at-muckle Congressional delegate, but nae senators. D.C. residents coud no vote in presidential elections till the ratification o the Twintie-third Amendment tae the Unitit States Constitution in 1961.

Washington, D.C. haes ten offeecial sister ceety greements. Paris is a Pairtner Ceety due tae the ane Sister Ceety policy o that commune.




#Article 420: Oslo (238 words)


Oslo ( or ) is a coonty an municipality, as well as the caipital an lairgest ceety in Norawa. Oslo wis establisht as a municipality on 1 Januar 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt). Foondit aroond 1048 bi King Harald Hardrada, the ceety wis lairgely destroyed bi a fire in 1624. The Dens–Norse king Christian IV rebuilt the ceety as Christianie (briefly an aa spelt Kristianie). In 1925 the ceety reclaimit its oreeginal Norse name, Oslo. The diocese o Oslo is ane o the five oreeginal dioceses in Norawa, which oreeginatit aroond the year 1070.

Oslo is the cultural, scientific, economic an govrenmental centre o Norawa. The ceety is an' a' a hub o Norse trade, bankin, industry an shippin. It is an important centre for maritime industries an maritime trade in Europe. The ceety is hame tae mony companies athin the maritime sector, some o them are amangst the warld's lairgest shippin companies, shipbrokers an maritime insurance brokers. Oslo is a pilot ceety o the Cooncil o Europe an the European Commission intercultural ceeties programme.

Oslo is considered a global ceety an ranked Beta World Ceety in studies performed bi the Globalization an World Ceeties Study Group an Netwirk in 2008. For several years, Oslo haes been leetit as ane o the maist expensive ceeties in the warld alang wi such ither global caipitals as Copenhagen, Paris, an Tokyo.

Oslo is twinned or haes cooperation agreements wi the follaein ceeties/regions:




#Article 421: Brisbane (156 words)


Brisbane (pronooncit /ˈbɹɪz.bən/) is the caipital an maist populous ceety in Queensland , as weel as the thrid maist muckle ceety in Austraile, wi aboot 1,810,943 indwallers. It's locatit naur tae the Paceefic Ocean. Brisbane's aboot a thoosand kilometres (625 mile) Nor-East o Sydney.

The ceety wis named in honour o Sir Thomas Brisbane wha wis Govrenor o New Sooth Wales frae 1821 tae 1825. The oreeginal toun grew frae a sair jyle toun shapit at his airtin in 1824 at a place cried Redcliffe, 28 km tae the north. The toun wis flitten tae wha it is the nou in 1825, an free indwallers (as contrair tae convicts) war alloued frae 1842. It wis chuist as the caipital whan Queensland wis proclaimit a sinder colony in 1859. The ceety slawly forderit till efter Warld Weir II, whan it wis gey important in the Allied campaign as the Sooth Wast Paceefic base o General Douglas MacArthur.




#Article 422: Money (178 words)


Siller or money is onything that is for ordinar accepted in payment for guids an services an in repayment o dets. The main uises o siller are as a medium o exchynge, a unit o accoont, an a store o vailyie.

A currency is a unit o exchynge, faceelitatin the transfer o guids an services. It is a form o siller, an it is conseedert a store o vailyie bi mony fowk an aw, that's shaped bi a claim tae its central baunk assets. A currency zone is a kintra or region that haes a specific currency as the dominant medium o exchynge. For tae faceelitate troke atween currency zones, thare's exchynge rates i.e. prices that currencies (an the guids an services o indiveedual currency zones) can be exchynged agin ilk ither for. Currencies can be classifee'd as aither fleetin currencies or fixed currencies based on their exchynge rate regime. In common uiss, currency whiles refers anerly tae paper money, as in cunyies an currency, but this is misleadin. Cunyies an paper money is baith forms o currency.




#Article 423: Antropologie (103 words)


Antropologie is the studie o human beins. Antropologie is a social science that helps fowk learn whit wey groups o fowk is the same, an whit wey they differ in aw the airts o the warld. Antropologists dis research in mony airts an leuks at the wey fowk leeves the nou an hou they micht hae leeved in the bygane (uisin the study o Airchaeologie). They daes research in modren ceeties, wee veelage tribes, an in the landwart airts. They study whit wey thae groups o fowk conseeders time, space, life an ither things.

The fower basic kynds o antropologie is as follaes: 




#Article 424: OpenBSD (3748 words)


OpenBSD is a free operatin system, that pits its emphasis on securitie. The source code is open. It's nae muckle different fae UNIX o the BSD varietie (Berkeley Software Distribution). It wis Theo de Raadt that stairtit OpenBSD in 1995, wi a forkin o the code fae NetBSD. De Raadt's threap is that OpenBSD is an operatin system meant for research an for giein computers better securitie.

The OpenBSD project keeps, an uphauds, portable versions o monie o its ain subsystems as packages that ither operatin systems can tak an uise. Wi the emphasis it pits on haein guid-quality code, a lot o OpenBSD's components is uised ower agane in ither saftware projects. Android uises a lot fae OpenBSD's staundart C library. LLVM uises OpenBSD's regular expression library, an Windows 10 uises OpenSSH (kent forby as OpenBSD Secure Shell) wi LibreSSL.

The wird open in the name OpenBSD means that its source code can be gotten fae the Internet, tho the wird open in the name OpenSSH means OpenBSD. Forby, open means that OpenBSD can rin on a heest o different types o computer.

 shawin the proportion o uisers o ilka kynd o BSD frae a 2005 BSD survey o uiss. Ilka partiecipant wis alloued tae chyse mair nor ane o the BSD kynds
In December 1994, Theo de Raadt wis gart resign fae the NetBSD core team. His access tae the program code wis taen awa fae him. Ither team members claimed it was aw aboot fowk on the mailin lists fawin oot wi ane anither.

In October 1995, De Raadt foondit OpenBSD, a new project fork't fae NetBSD 1.0. The first release, OpenBSD 1.2, wis in July 1996, follaed by OpenBSD 2.0 in the October o thon same year. Sinsyne, the project his pitten oot a release ilka six months. Thay support ilkane o thaim for ae year.

On 25 July 2007, OpenBSD developer Bob Beck annunce't the foondin o the OpenBSD Foundation in Canada. This wis a nae-profits organisation wi the ettle o bein a single pynt o contact for fowk an organisations, needin a legal entitie that thay cud deal wi whan thay wir wantin tae support OpenBSD.

It's haurd tae ken jist hou widely OpenBSD gets uised, seein as the developers disna gaither or publish statistics aboot this. In September 2005, the BSD Certification Group surveyed BSD uisers. Thay fand that 33% o thaim uised OpenBSD, ahint FreeBSD wi its 77% an aheid o NetBSD wi jist 16%.

Ae thing that OpenBSD staunds oot for is its strang, sturdy netwarkin stack. It can be uised as a router or a wireless access pynt. OpenBSD's better securitie, its ain inbiggit cryptographie, an its packet filter maks it a guid chyce for firewaws, intrusion detection, VPN gateweys, an ither purposes whaur securitie is important.

A wheen o proprietarie systems is biggit on OpenBSD, amang thaim anes fae Armorlogic (Profense web application firewaw), Calyptix Security, GeNUA and .vantronix.

A curn versions o Microsoft's Services for UNIX, a biggin oot o the Windows operatin system tae gie functionalitie sib tae UNIX, uises a lot o OpenBSD code that comes wi the Interix interoperability suite develop't by Softway Systems Inc, that Microsoft bocht in 1999. Core Force, a securitie product for Windows, is foondit on OpenBSD's firewaw.

OpenBSD comes ready wi Xenocara, a implementation o the X Window System. It can be uised as a desktap operatin system for personal computers, laptaps an aw. As o September 2018, OpenBSD hauds aboot 8000 packages in its saftware repositorie, amang thaim environments the like o GNOME, Plasma 4, an Xfce, an wab browsers the likes o Firefox and Chromium.

OpenBSD his a full server suite. It can be setten up tae be a mail server, wab server, FTP server, DNS server, router, firewa, NFS file server, or onie o thae things thegither.

Nae lang efter the wark stairtit on OpenBSD, De Raadt heard fae a local security saftware company named Secure Networks (ane that McAfee bocht later). Thay wir wirkin on a netwark security audit tool cried Ballista, that its aim wis tae find, an tak a len o, flaws in saftware security. This fittit weel wi De Raadt's interest in securitie, sae the twa o thaim wirkit thegither, leadin tae the launch o OpenBSD 2.3. This jynt wark helpit tae bring securitie tae the fore as the focus o the OpenBSD project.

OpenBSD his a wheen o features that thair aim is better security, the likes o:

Tae lower the risk o a waikness, or wrang settin up, or allouin a process tae hae privilege it shudna hae, monie programs his been written or cheenged tae mak uise o privilege separation, privilege revocation an chrooting. Privilege separation is a wey o wirkin, first tried on OpenBSD and inspire't by the principle o lowest  privilege, whaur a program is splitten intae twa or mair pairts: ane o thaim dis the privileged operations an the ither ane, awmaist aye the feck o the code, rins wi nae privilege. Privilege revocation is gey near the same, an gars a program dui ony operations it needs til wi the privileges it stairts wi, an syne draps thaim. Chrooting means haudin an application tae ae pairt o the file system, baurin it fae areas that micht haud private or system files. Developers sinsyne his applied thon principles tae OpenBSD maks o a wheen common applications, the likes o tcpdump, file, tmux, smtpd, and syslogd.

OpenBSD developers played a big pairt in the makkin o OpenSSH (kent forby as OpenBSD Secure Shell). It code is haudit in the same CVS repositories as OpenBSD. OpenBSD Secure Shell is foondit on the auld, first SSH. It first appeared in OpenBSD 2.6, an nou it's by far the widest uised SSH client an server, available on monie operatin systems.

The project his a policy o aye auditin source code for problems. This is wark that developer Marc Espie his said is nivver finish't ... mair a maiter o a process nor o a kent bug bein huntit. He cairied on tae gie a list o a curn typical steps thay tak ance a bug is fund, amang thaim leukin throu the hail code tree for problems that is the same or gey near the same, tryin tae wirk oot if the documents is needin cheenged, an leukin intae whether it's possible tae mak the compiler warn aboot this partiecular problem.

The OpenBSD wabsite maks a claim aboot the system's security record, a claim that staunds oot richt awa. Until June 2002, it read:

Five year, an nae remote hole in the defaut installation!

In June 2002, Mark Dowd fae Internet Security Systems telt awbodie aboot a bug in the OpenSSH code, the pairt giein challenge-response authentication. This waikness in OpenBSD's defaut installation alloued a attacker tae get intae the ruit accoont remote-like, an this wis gey serious no jist tae OpenBSD, bit forby tae the monie ither operatin systems that wis uisin OpenSSH by then. Oot o this, the slogan on the OpenBSD wabsite hid tae be cheenged til:

Ae remote hole in the defaut installation, in near-on 6 year!

The claim bade the wey it wis ower time, until 13th Mairch, 2007, whan Alfredo Ortega fae Core Security Technologies telt awbodie aboot a remote vulnerability tied tae netwarkin. Efter this ane the quote wis cheenged til:

Twa remote holes in the defaut installation, in a awfu lang time!

This statement his been doun-cried, seein as the defaut installation disna hae monie rinnin services, an monie uise cases needs ither services an aw. As weel, seein as the ports tree hauds third-pairtie saftware that hisna been auditit, it is easie for uisers tae waiken securitie if thay instaw packages wrang or set thaim up wrang. For aw that, the project threaps that the slogan is meant tae be aboot a defaut installation, an that it is richt by that meisure.

Ane o the basic ideas ahint OpenBSD is a drive for systems tae be simple, clean, an secure fae the beginnin. Thare's nae muckle tae the defaut installation, that the project says is tae mak shuir new uisers disna need tae become securitie experts owernicht. This fits wi open-source an code audits bein thocht on as important elements o a securitie system.

On 11 December 2010, Gregory Perry, that hid aerlier been a technical consultant for the Federal Bureau o Investigation (FBI), emailed De Raadt wi a claim that the FBI hid pey'd some OpenBSD ex-developers 10 year afore tae pit backdoors intae the OpenBSD Cryptographic Framewark. De Raadt made the email public on 14 December by sendin it on tae the openbsd-tech mailin list an askit for a audit o the IPsec codebase. De Raadt's answer wis that he hid his douts aboot the report, an he invitit aw the developers tae review the code independent-like. In the weeks that follaed, bugs wis fix't but naebodie fund onie evidence o backdoors. De Raadt threap't A div believe that NetSec wis likelie contractit tae write backdoors lik it's been alleged. If thay wir written, A dinna believe thay wun the lenth o oor tree. Thay micht hae been deployed as thair ain product.

In December 2017, Ilja van Sprundel, director at IOActive, gied a speik at the CCC as weel as DEF CON, wi the title Is aw BSDs creatit equal-like? A survey o BSD kernel waiknesses whaur he said that, awtho OpenBSD wis the clear winner o the BSDs as meisured by hou secure thay ar, Bugs is aye easie tae find in thae kernels, even in OpenBSD.

Twa year efter, in 2019, a speik wi the name A systematic evaluation of OpenBSD's mitigations wis gien at the CCC. It airgued that, while OpenBSD dis hae some wirthwhile mitigations, a guid monie o thaim is uiseless at best, an foondit on pure luck an superstition, airguin for a mair rational approach in thair design.

The different computers an ither devices ye can uise OpenBSD on is gien in a list in the OpenBSD Supported Platforms Notes. Ither arrangements micht wirk an aw, bit they jist hinna been testit or pitten doun in the documents. Thare's a 3rd-pairtie repository o (roch) lists o computers an ither devices, pitten thegither automatic-like.

In 2020, a new project wis stairtit tae gaither information, automatic-like, aboot aw the testit haurdware arrangements.

Monie open source projects stairtit as components o OpenBSD. Amang thaim wir:

Some subsystems his been brocht inby as pairt o ither BSD operatin systems, an monie can be gotten as packages tae be uised in ither Unix-like systems.

Linux administrator Carlos Fenollosa said, whan he gaed ower fae Linux tae OpenBSD, that the system is leal tae Unix's philosophie o haein sma an simple tools that wirks thegither weel. Some base components disna hae the same number o features, deliberate-like. Seein as 99% o the servers disna need tae be swack lik Apache, OpenBSD's httpd wull wirk fine, be mair secure, an likelie faster. The ootcome is that, time an time agane, OpenBSD creates components an syne monie o thaim is uised agane in ither systems.

OpenBSD rins gey near aw o its staundart daemons inside chroot and privsep securitie structures by defaut, as pairt o haurdenin the base system.

The Calgary Internet Exchange wis foondit in 2012, in pairt sae's tae serve the needs o the OpenBSD project.

Inside OpenBSD thare's a wheen o third-pairtie components, monie o thaim wi patches meant jist for OpenBSD, the likes o X.Org, Clang (the defaut compiler on a wheen o architectures), GCC,Perl, NSD, Unbound, ncurses, GNU binutils, GDB, an AWK.

Development gangs on aw the time, an team management is open an organised intae tiers. Oniebodie wi the richt skills can jyne in, wi the richt tae commit wark gien on merit an wi De Raadt actin as the heid-ane. Twa official releases is made ilka year, wi the version number raised by 0.1, and ilkane is supportit for twal months (twa release cycles). Snapshot releases is pitten oot an aw, aften.

Upkeep patches for supportit releases can be pitten on manual-like or by bringin a system up-tae-date against the patch braunch o the CVS repository for that release. On the ither haund, a system administrator can decide tae upgrade fae a snapshot release an syne update the system regular-like fae the current branch o the CVS repository, sae's tae gain access tae new features afore thay'r released.

The generic OpenBSD kernel providit by defaut is recommendit as the best ane for end uisers, nae like operatin systems that recommends uisers dui the kernel customisation thaimsels.

Packages ootside the base system is maintained by CVS throu a ports tree, an thay'r the responsibilitie o the individual maintainers, cried porters. As weel as keepin the current braunch up tae date, porters is leukit-tae tae pit in the richt bug-fixes an upkeep fixes tae braunches o thair package for OpenBSD's supportit releases. On the hail, ports is no gien the same on-gaun auditin as the base system, for want o manpouer.

Binary packages is biggit central-like fae the ports tree for ilka architecture. This process is duin for the current version, for ilka supportit release, and for ilka snapshot. Administrators is recommendit tae uise the package mechanism insteid o biggin the package fae the ports tree, unless they need tae make thair ain cheenges tae the source code.

OpenBSD's developers meets regular-like at special events cried hackathons, whaur they sit doun an code, wi the ettle o daein a lot o wark.

In maist new releases, there's a sang.

OpenBSD is kent for its guid quality o documentation. It's seen as the best amang aw the BSD operating systems, tho aw o thaim pits a lot o effort intae correct documentation.

Whan OpenBSD wis first stairtit, De Raadt wantit the source code tae be open tae oniebodie tae read. At thon time, it wis uisual that a sma team o developers hid access tae a project's source code. Chuck Cranor an De Raadt thocht this practice didna fit wi the open source philosophie an wis jist gettin in the road o potential contributors. Thegither, Cranor and De Raadt set up the first public, nameless CVS server. De Raadt's decision alloued uisers tae tak a mair steerin role, and set doun the project's commitment tae haein open access.

OpenBSD disna haud closed-source binary drivers in the source tree, an thay dinna haud code that needs a non-disclosure agreement tae be signed aither.

Seein as OpenBSD his its hame in Canada, US American export restrictions on cryptography disna haud. This allous the distribution tae mak full uise o modren algorithms for encryption. For example, the swap space is pairtit intae sma sections an ilka section is encryptit wi its ain key, makkin shuir that sensitive data disna leak ower intae a insecure pairt o the system.

OpenBSD randomises the different things that applications dis, makkin it haurder tae foretell whit thay'r gaun tae dae, and that wey thay'r faur haurder tae attack. For example, PIDs is creatit an associate tae processes random-like; the bind system caw uises random port numbers; files is creatit wi random inode numbers; and IP datagrams his random identifiers.

The OpenBSD policie on openness gaes as faur as haurdware documentation: in the slides for a presentation in December 2006, De Raadt explain't that wi-oot it developers aften gangs agley writin drivers, an pyntit oot that the [michtie, A gart it wirk] rush is haurder tae bring aboot, an some developers jist gies up. He gaed on tae say that binary drivers fae the vendor is nae acceptable as pairt o OpenBSD, that thay hiv nae trust o vendors' binaries rinning in oor kernel an that thare is nae wey tae fix [thaim] ... whan thay brak.

OpenBSD's licence policie is a strict ane, wi a better likin for the ISC license an ither variants o the BSD licence. The project tries tae haud tae the spirit o the auld Berkeley Unix copierichts, that alloued a Unix source distribution wi-oot muckle hindrance. The widelie uised Apache License an the GNU General Public License is seen as ower strict.

In June 2001, stemmin fae worries aboot Darren Reed's cheenges tae IPFilter's licence wirdin, a systematic license audit o the OpenBSD ports an the source trees wis haudit. Code in mair nor a hunder files throu the hail system wis fund tae be: nae licensed ava; nae licensed clear-like; or in uise against the terms o thair license. Tae mak shuir that aw the licences wis abidden by, thay tried tae mak contact wi aw thaim that hid relevant copyrichts: some pieces o code wis taen oot, an monie wis replace't awthegither. Ither anes, the like o the multicast routin tools mrinfo and map-mbone, wis licensed ower agane sae's that OpenBSD cud cairy on uisin thaim. Forby, aw saftware that wis the wark o Daniel J. Bernstein wis taen oot. At thon time, Bernstein wis wantin aw cheenges tae his code tae hae his approval afore thay wir sent oot, an OpenBSD developers wis sweirt tae pit time an darg intae daein this.

Oot o worries aboot licensin, the OpenBSD team his written saftware ower agane fae the beginnin, or brocht in suitable saftware that hid been written awreadie. For example, OpenBSD developers creatit the PF packet filter efter they cudna accept restrictions that hid been pitten on IPFilter. PF wis first pairt o OpenBSD 3.0, an it's pairt o monie ither operatin systems nou. OpenBSD developers his written thair ain tools, wi the licence open tae oniebodie, tae tak the place o general licensed tools the like o CVS, diff, grep and pkg-config.

OpenBSD an its portable components is uised in ither products, tho De Raadt says that nae muckle o the siller fae sellin thae products wins the lenth o OpenBSD. Mainlie wir siller haes been gotten fae uisers' donations an fae uisers buyin wir CDs. It's easie tae see that wunna be muckle.

For a peiriod o twa year in the aerlie 2000s, the project wis gettin siller frae DARPA, an that pey'd the salaries o 5 fowk tae wirk ful-time, bocht aboot thertie thoosand dollars in haurdware, and pey'd for 3 hackathons, fae the POSSE project.

In 2006, the OpenBSD project suffer't fae a want o siller. The Mozilla Foundation an GoDaddy is twa o the organisations that helpit OpenBSD tae haud gaun. For aw that, De Raadt wis fash't that this wis aw ae-sidit: A think donations an peyments shoud hae come first fae the saftware sellers, an syne saicont fae the corporate uisers, an third fae uisers by thaimsels. Reallie, it's been awmaist the ither wey roon awthegither, wi a ratio o awmaist 15 dollars tae ane comin fae the wee fowk. Thank ye muckle, wee fowk!

On 14 January 2014, Bob Beck askit for siller tae pey electritie bills. Gin thay cudna find fundin for the lang term, Beck thocht the OpenBSD project wad hae tae close doun. The project suin got a donation o twintie thoosand US dollars fae Mircea Popescu, him that wis the Romanian creator o the MPEx bitcoin stock exchange. The donation wis pey'd in bitcoins. The project brocht in US$150,000 fae the appeal, sae's it cud pey its bills an mak siccar its short-term future. Fae 2014 on, a curn big contributions tae the OpenBSD Foundation his come fae corporations, the likes o Microsoft, Facebook an Google as weel as the Core Infrastructure Initiative.

Durin the 2016 and 2017 fundraisin campaigns, it wis Smartisan, a Chinese firm, that gied the maist siller tae the project.

Oniebodie can get haud o OpenBSD, an in a wheen o weys: the source can be taen anonymous-like fae CVS, an binary releases an development snapshots can be dounloadit by FTP, HTTP, and rsync. CD-ROM sets, up tae version 6.0, can be order't online for a smaw fee, thegither wi a curn stickers an a copie o the release's theme sang. Thir things, wi thair airtwark an ither bonuses, his been ane o the project's (no monie) sources o siller. It peys for haurdware, Internet service, an ither costs. Stairtin fae version 6.1, CD-ROM sets is no gien oot onie mair.

OpenBSD comes wi its ain package management system sae's that programs that is no pairt o its base operatin system can be instawed an managed easie-like.  Packages is binarie files that is extractit, managed an taen oot wi the package tools. On OpenBSD, the source o packages is the ports system, a gaitherin thegither o Makefiles an ither infrastructure needit tae create packages. In OpenBSD, the ports an base operatin system is developed an released thegither for ilka version. This means that the ports or packages released wi, for example, 4.6 is no suitable for uisin wi 4.5, an the same the ither wey roond.

Tae stairt wi, OpenBSD uised a version (wi a halo) o the BSD daemon mascot drawn by Erick Green, him that wis askit by De Raadt tae draw the logo for the 2.3 and 2.4 versions o OpenBSD. Green planned tae draw a full daemon, heid an body an aw, bit jist the heid wis ready in time for OpenBSD 2.3. The body wi the graip an tail wis ready for OpenBSD 2.4.

The follaein releases uised ither things, the likes o a police daemon fae Ty Semaka. In the hinner end, thay settle't on a pufferfish cried Puffy. Fae then on, Puffy his been on OpenBSD promotional material an feature't in release sangs an airtwark.

The promotional material o aerlie OpenBSD releases didna hae jist ae theme or design rinnin throu it, bit later the CD-ROMs, release sangs, posters an tee-shirts for ilka release his been produce't wi jist ae style and theme, whilies wi inpit fae Ty Semaka fae the Plaid Tongued Devils. Thir things his come tae be pairt o OpenBSD's advocacie, wi ilka release pittin ower a moral or political pynt important tae the project, aften by wey o a parodie.

Thare's been themes the likes o Puffy the Barbarian in OpenBSD 3.3. Pairt o it wis an 80s rock sang an parodie o Conan the Barbarian hintin at open documentation, The Wizard of OS in OpenBSD 3.7, tied tae the project's wark on wireless drivers, an Hackers of the Lost RAID, a parodie o Indiana Jones hintin at the new RAID tools in OpenBSD 3.8.

Thare's been a wheen o beuks aboot OpenBSD that wis published, includin:




#Article 425: David I, King o Scots (159 words)


David I o Scotland (1084 - 24 Mey 1153) wis king o Scots atween the years 1124-1153.

He wis the youngest laddie o king Malcolm III o Scots an sainct Margaret. Altho he spent maist o his bairnhead in Scotland, he wis sent tae Ingland in exile in 1093 throu a pouer strauchle atween his aulder brithers for the throne o Scotland. He growed up at the coort o Henry I o Ingland whaur he wis raised as an Anglo-Norman prince. Efter the daith o his brither Alexander I o Scotland, David ascendit tae the throne o Scotland. He is best kent as the king that introduced the govrenmental seestem o feudalism tae Scotland, for foundin the Burghs an for bringin Scotland mair in line wi tradeetional Inglis an European cultur. He brocht mony spaekers o early northren Middle Inglis tae Scotland an aw an this is eften seen as whit helped in the creation o the Scots leid.




#Article 426: Celtic leids (213 words)


The Celtic leids is a faimlie o leids spak bi Celtic fowk. The Celtic leids that's aye still tae the fore the day is Erse (Gaelige), Scots Gaelic (Gàidhlig) an Manx (Gaelg) that maks up the Goidelic brainch, an Welsh (Cymraeg), Cornish (Kernewek (an ither spellins)) an Breton (Brezhoneg) that maks up the Brythonic brainch. At ae time there wis mony ither Celtic leids spak athort Europe sic as Gaulis an Pecht but they hae syne dee'd oot.

The Celtic Leids cam frae the Proto-Celtic leid. The history o the leids an whaur exactly they cam fae is gey contreversial the nou, wi ae side threapin fir a Spanish oreegin, an the ither fir a Central European ain, but naetheless, the leids that cam frae Proto-Celtic were tae be fun ower aw o Europe fae Spain in the Wast till Turkey in the East durin the period o the Roman Empire. At ae time there wis mony ither Celtic leids spak athort Europe sic as Gauls an aiblins een Pecht (though thon is no kent fer siccar tae be pairt o the Celtic linguistic faimlie) that hae syne dee'd oot, while the day, the anerly survivin descendants are tae be fund in Scotland, Ireland, Cornwall (as a revived leid), Mann, Brittany, an Wales.




#Article 427: L. Colin Wilson (118 words)


L. Colin Wilson (born 1958, Aiberdeen) is a Scots leid-upsteerer, writer, saftware bigger an linguist. He wis born in Aiberdeen an efter spendin maist o his bairnheid there, he flittit tae the Scots-spaekin toun o Couter. Fae 1979 tae 1989 he bade in Lunnon, Ingland. Efter that he flittit back tae Scotland whaur he spent eleiven year in Glesca afore returnin tae his hametoun.

He haes been a member o the Scots Leid Associe syne 1989 an haes serred as a member o its national commatee an as secretar o its Glesca brainch. Amang his mony contreebutions tae the Scots leid is a textbeuk written on Scots for lairners furth o Scotland cried the Luath Scots Language Learner.




#Article 428: Breton leid (189 words)


The Breton Leid (Brezhoneg) is a leid spak in the peninsula o Breetany in the nor-wast o Fraunce. It is a Celtic leid an is sib tae Cornish an Welsh. The leid wis brocht tae this airt o Fraunce, cried Armorica at thon time, durin the Anglo-Saxon invasions o Breetain durin the fowert year hunder. At thon time, monie Celtic fowk fae the soo-wast o the island (the airt nou kent bi maist fowk as the wast kintra) wis fleein tae the continent acause the Anglo-Saxons wis owerhailin their laund. Thir fowk wis the forebears o the Breton fowk an their kynd o Brythonic leid wis whit growed intae the Breton leid. It wis the leid o the nobility o Brittany til the 12t century, bit syne the French leid haes becam mair dominant in Brittany. The poseetion o the French govrenment the noo is agin the Breton leid, houaniver it is aye spak bi aboot 500,000 fowk in the wastren hauf o the peninsula. Anither leid, cried Gallo is spak in eastren Brittany. It is a Romance leid, no o a Celtic leid, an is sib tae French.




#Article 429: Romance leids (117 words)


The Romance Leids is a brainch o the Indo-European faimilie o leids that cam frae the Laitin leid, in parteecular frae the byleid kent as Vulgar Laitin that wis spak by settlers an sodgers frae Rome that settlt in monie differ Roman provinces. Efter the fall o the Roman Empire the byleids o Latin that hae growed in thir provinces startit tae chynge intae differ leids. The five muckle maist Romance leids the nou are French, Spaingie, Portuguese, Italian an Romanie. Altho the leids oreeginatit in sooth-wastren Europe there are monie spaekers in the Americaes (North Americae an Sooth Americae) an Africae the nou maistlie acause o Spanyie an tae a lesser stent French an Portuguese colonialism.




#Article 430: Ensenyie (199 words)


An ensenyie is a phrase or a cutty leet o wirds that pits ower the ettle or mynt o an entity, social group, or organisation. Mony kintras, ceeties, varsities, an ither institutions hae ensenyies, as daes faimlies wi coats o airms.

An ensenyie can be in ony leid. Laitin an, tae a lesser degree, French is uised maist aften bi faur, acause ilkane wis the preencipal internaitional tongue for a richt lang time. The hamel langage is mair common in the ensenyies o govrenments. Far example Ingland haes a French ensenyie, as daes the Netherlands an, obviously, Fraunce.

Fraternities an sororities maistlins haes their (for ordinar, dern) ensenyie in the Greek leid. That o the Coonty o Somerset is in Anglo-Saxon.

A cantin ensenyie is ane that hauds wird play. For exemplar, the ensenyie o the Earl o Onslow is Festina lente, punningly interpretin on-slow (literally make haste slowly).

In heraldry, an ensenyie is aftimes pairt o an achievement o airms, foe ordinar on a scrowe ablo the shield, or else abuin the crest as in Scots heraldry.

Ilka ship an submarine in the Ryal Navy haes a crest an motto, as daes units o the Ryal Air Force.




#Article 431: Euro (596 words)


The euro (Siller sign: €; baunkin code: EUR) is the offeecial siller o the European Union's Eurozone that at the meenit conseests o 19 states (Austrick, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, Fraunce, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuanie, Luxembourg, Maltae, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakie, Slovenie, Spain).

It is the ae siller for mair nor 320 million Europeans. Includin airts uisin sillers pegged tae the euro, the euro directly affects close tae 500 million fowk warldwide.

Wi mair nor €610 billion in circulation as o December 2006 (equeevalent tae US$802 billion at the exchynge rates at the time), the euro is the siller wi the hiechest combined vailie o cash in circulation in the warld, haein surpassed the U.S. dollar.

The euro wis introduced tae warld financial mercats as an accoontin siller in 1999 an lenched as pheesical cunyies an baunknotes on 1 Januar 2002. It replaced the umwhile European Currency Unit (ECU) at a ratio o 1:1.

 

The euro is dividit intae 100 cents (whiles cried eurocent, especially whan sinderin it frae the U.S. cent or the umwhile currency in a parteecular kintra). Aw circulatin euro cunyies (includin the €2 commemorative cunyies) haes a common side shawin the denomination (vailie) wi the auld 19 EU-kintras in the backgrund. Frae 2007 or 2008 on (lippenin on the kintra whaur the cunyie is issued) that auld cairt is replaced bi a cairt o Europe, that nou shows nane-EU-members sic as Norrowey. The cunyies haes a naitional side shawin an eemage speceefically waled bi the kintra that issued the cunyie. Euro cunyies frae ony kintra can be freely uised in ony naition that haes adoptit the euro.

The euro cunyies are €2, €1, €0.50, €0.20, €0.10, €0.05, €0.02, an €0.01. In the Netherlands cash transactions is roondit tae the nearest five cents, tae avoid the uise o €0.02, an €0.01, an in Finland, the twa smawest denominations isna ony langer struck, tho thay remain legal tender thare. (See Linguistic issues concernin the euro an aw.)

Commemorative cunyies wi €2 face value hae been issued wi chynges tae the design o the naitional side o the cunyie — as Greece did for the 2004 Summer Olympics. Thir twa-euro cunyies is legal tender throughoot the Eurozone. Cunyies wi various ither denominations hae been issued an aw, but thir are no intendit for general circulation. Thir later cunyies are anly legal tender in the naition that issued them.

Aw euro banknotes hae a common design for each denomination on baith sides. Notes are issued in €500, €200, €100, €50, €20, €10, €5. The design for each o them haes a common theme o European airchitecture in various airtistic periods. The front (or recto) o the note features windaes or gateways while the back (or verso) haes brigs. Care haes been taen sae that the airchitectural examples dinna represent ony actual existin monument, sae as no tae induce jealousy an controversy in the choice o whilk monument should be depictit. Some o the hiechest denominations sic as the €500 are no issued in a few kintras, tho thay remain legal tender athort the Eurozone.

Thir 19 kintras thegether is frequently referrit tae as the Eurozone or the euro airt, or mair informally euroland or the eurogroup. Ootside o the airt covered bi the cairt, the euro is the legal siller o the French owerseas possessions o French Guiana, Réunion, Saint-Pierre et Miquelon, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint-Barthélemy, Saint Martin, Mayotte, an the uninhabited Clipperton Island an the French Southern an Antarctic Lands; the Portuguese autonomous regions o the Azores an Madeira; an the Spainyie Canary Islands.




#Article 432: Tammie norrie (502 words)


A Tammie norrie (Fratercula arctica) is ony o three kins o auk (or alcids) in the bird genus Fratercula (Laitin: wee brither — mibbes referin tae their black an white feathers, that leuks like monastic clouts) wi a brichtly lit beak at breedin time. They are pelagic seabirds that maistlins eats bi doukin intil the sea. They breed in muckle colonies on seawart cleuchs or islands, nestin in craggy scores or in bourie ben the yird.

Aw three species o tammie norrie haes muckle beaks. They tyne the littit ooter pairts o their beaks efter breedin time, an is left wi smawer an mair dreich beaks. Their wee weengs is makkit for soumin wi a fleein gate unner the watter. In the lift, they muive their weengs fast (up tae a hunder times a meenit) in fast flicht, aft fleein laich ower the sea.

The male Atlantic Tammie Norrie bigs the nest an haes a strang need tae stey wi the nest. Baith sects o the Hornit Tammie Norrie gies a haund at biggin their nest. The bouries o the Atlantic an Hornit Tammie Norries is byordinar anerly aboot ae metre deep, wi a chaummer at the end, but the howe doun tae a Tautit Tammie Norrie bourie micht can be 2.75 metres lang. The Atlantic Tammie Norrie bourie is byordinar makkit wee things like girse, windlestrae, leafs, feathers an siclike, but is whiles makkit wi juist the suddle. The eggs o the Atlantic Tammie Norrie haes a reamie tint but micht can be mair o a laylock tint.

Tammie norries is unalike mony craiturs, an insteid tak lang-term pairtners. The female lees juist the ae egg, an baith paurents hauds the egg wairm an feeds the bairn. The paurent that's leukin efter the bairn hauds the egg agin their brood patch wi their weengs. The bairns gaes oot the nest at nicht. Efter lea'in, the youthie tammie norries steys oot at sea for the first puckle year o their life at sea, retourin tae breed efter three tae sieven year.

As wi mony auks, tammie norries eats baith fish an zooplankton, but maistlins feeds their bairns wi wee fish several times a day. The tammie norrie is distinct in that they can haud several (mibbes mair nor a dizzen) wee fishies at the ae time, crosswise in their beak. Acause o this they can mak langer reenges, acause they can retour wi mair smeddum for their bairns nor a bird that can anerly cairy ae fish at a time.

Three species is recognised the day:

The genus Fratercula belike evolved in the northren Paceefic, like maist kynds o auks. Houaniver, at least twa prehistoric species that's no weel kent is kent tae hae bid in the wastren Atlantic fair suin efter the genus' beginnins:

Anither deid species, Dow's Tammie Norrie (Fratercula dowi) wis fund on the Channel Islands o California up tae the Late Pleistocene or Early Holocene. Like eneuch it dee'd acause a ower-huntin an egg-gaitherin bi early human settlers.




#Article 433: Starcraft (129 words)


Starcraft, ran bi Blizzard Entertainment, is a gemme makkit in 1998 an mony fowk plays it. There's 3 kynd o fowk in the gemme. 

These fowk is human.

These fowk is creaturs that's sib tae insects.

These fowk is auld aliens wi mony pouers.

The fowk who play the gemme play on the Battle.net server. Thar 7 severs: Asie 1 2 and 3, Europe, US East, and US Wast. The reason fir the 3 Asie servers is the Korean fowk lik ta play this gemme. 

Starcraft Expansion: Brood War
This gemme makkit in 1998 mekke more fowk play. 

Starcraft II
Blizzard fowk say in 2007 that they will mekke this game. Unfortnately it had since been delait, there is no release date announced yit, despite a workin' public beta.




#Article 434: New York Ceety (448 words)


New York is the maist populous ceety in the Unitit States an the centre o the New York metropolitan aurie, whilk is ane o the maist populous metropolitan auries in the warld. New York Ceety haes a significant impact on global commerce, finance, media, cultur, airt, fashion, research, eddication, an entertainment. As host o the Unitit Naitions Heidquarters, it is an aa an important centre for internaitional affairs. The ceety is aften referred tae as New York Ceety or the Ceety o New York tae distinguish it frae the state o New York, o which it is a pairt.

Locatit on a lairge naitural harbour on the Atlantic coast o the Northeastren Unitit States, the ceety consists o five boroughs: The Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan, Queens, an Staten Island. The ceety's 2009 estimatit population approached 8.4 million, an wi a land aurie o 305 square mile (790 km2), New York Ceety is the maist densely populatit major ceety in the Unitit States. The New York metropolitan aurie's population is the USA's mucklest, estimatit at 19.1 million fowk ower 6,720 square mile (17,400 km2). The Combined Statistical Aurie contained 22.2 million fowk as o 2009 Census estimates, an aa the mucklest in the Unitit States.

New York wis foondit as a commercial tredin post bi the Dutch in 1624. The dounset wis cawed New Amsterdam til 1664 whan the colony came unner Inglis control.

Mony destricts an laundmerks in the ceety hae acome weel kent tae ootsiders.  The Statue o Liberty greetit millions o immigrants as thay came tae Americae in the late 19t an early 20t centuries. Times Square, iconifee'd as The Crossroads o the Warld, is the brichtly illuminatit hub o the Broadway theatre destrict, ane o the warld's busiest pedestrian intersections, an a major centre o the warld's entertainment industry. Anchored bi Wall Street, in Lawer Manhattan, New York vies wi Lunnon as the financial caipital o the warld an is hame tae the New York Stock Exchynge, the warld's mucklest stock exchynge bi mercat caipitalisation o its leetit companies. The oreeginal Manhattan Chinatown attracts thrangs o tourists tae its bustlin sidewalks an retail establishments. Warld-cless schuils an varsities sic as Columbia University, New York University an Fordham University an aa reside in New York Ceety.

New York Ceety haes ten sister ceeties recognisit bi Sister Cities International (SCI):

Lik New York Ceety, aw except Beijing are the maist populous ceeties o thair respective kintras.

Unlik New York Ceety, aw but Johannesburg serve as de facto or de jure naitional poleetical caipitals. New York an her sister ceeties are aw major economic centres, but few o the sister ceeties share New York's status as a major seaport.




#Article 435: Prime Meenister o Australie (172 words)


The teetle o Prime Meenister o Australie is the teetle o the heidsman o the Australie govrenment, this role is filt bi Scott Morrison the nou. The meenisterial poseetion o prime meenister is appyntit bi the Govrenor-General o Australie wham is the reprasentative o the Monarch o Australie.

Ablow is a leet o Prime Meenisters o Australie wi names, stairt date in the poseetion, end date in the poseetion, poleetical pairty, hail speal as prime meenister an state representit in pairlament. The state(s) representit in pairlament isnae necessarly the yin that the politeetion haed the strangest associe; the mucklest ensaumple bein Bob Hawke wham wis born in Sooth Australie, as a wean bade in Wastren Australie, wrocht in an representit Victoria an retired til New Sooth Wales.

The parties shawn are thae tae that the prime meenisters belangit at the time o takkin office. Several prime meenisters belangit tae pairties ither than thae gien afore an efter thair prime meenisterships.

Fir a leet shawin mair, see Leet o Prime Meenisters o Australie.




#Article 436: Końskowola (209 words)


Końskowola is a toun in Sootheastren Poland. It's the caipital o a commune athin Puławy Coonty an the Lublin Voivodeship. It haes 2,188 indwallers (in 2004).

The toun was incorporatit on Juin 8, 1532. Końskowola wis a mercat toun for the troke o fuid for the local area. 
In Warld War II, on September 15, 1939, Końskowola wis takken bi German sodgers. Durin the war, the Germans biggit a POW camp an camps for sclave laubour in the toun. The POW camp wis soon stoppit belyve, bit a laubour camp wis there till 1943.

A ghetto wis establishit in the toun, an mony Jews wis relocatit there, includin Jews frae Slovakie. On Mey 8, 1942, the Nazis gaithered mony Jews and transportit them tae a daith camp. In October 1942, the ghetto's population wis killed in a massacre cairrit oot bi German sodgers. Mebbes 800-1000 Jews, including wifies an bairns, wis taen tae a shaw naurhaund, an killed. The ghetto's remaining indwallers wis muived tae anither camp.

Wi the approach of Soviet Union sodgers in the simmer o 1944, the Germans ettlet tae scauder the toun. On Julie 25, 1944, the German sodgers wis attackit bi sodgers fae the Polish resistance. The toun wis bedeen freed frae the Germans.




#Article 437: Scots Hielands (108 words)


The Hielands (Scots Gaelic: Gaidhealtachd) is the muntainous northren an wastren airts o Scotland whaur the Scots Gaelic leid haes tradeetionally been spak. The wird is derived fae the wirds heich an land. Thir airts o Scotland is gey different fae the Lawlands in that the Scots Gaelic leid is tradeetionally spak thare in steid o Scots, an acause the influence o the auncient Celts o Scotland is aye felt thare. The Protestant Reformation wisna sae successfu in the Hielands as the Lawlands an acause o this the Catholic releegion is mair prominent nor the Kirk in some airts. Innerness is aft cried the caipital o the Hielands.




#Article 438: Perth (226 words)


Perth or Pairth (), kent in auld Scots as Sanct Johnstoun, is a ceitie an unwhyl mukkil toun, ceitie aforehaund  an ryal burgh in central Scotland. Liggin on the River Tay, it is the heidsteid o the Pairth an Kinross cooncil aurie an the historic coontie toun o Pairthshire. Acordin til a 2008 estimate, Pairth haes 44,820 indwallers.

The toun's name cums frae a Pecht wird for wid or shaw, an links the toun til the Pechts deskreivit bi the Romans. The Pechts syn jynt wi the Scots ti form the kingrik o Alba that haes syn becam kent as Scotland. The name Perth haes syn been uisit for monie ither touns an ceities athort the warld. The maist weil-kent o thaim is Perth, Wastren Australie — cried siclyk at the wiss o Sir George Murray, Secretar o State for War an the Colonies, wha wis born in Pairth. Pairth haes been kent as The Fair Ceitie sin the publication o the storie Fair Maid of Perth bi Scots writer Sir Walter Scott in 1828. Durin the medieval eild the toun wis cried St John's Toun or Saint Johnstoun, in referenss til the toun's main kirk dedicated til St John the Baptist. The name is aye preservit in the toun's fitbaa club, cried St Johnstone.

Perth railwey station is the terminus o the Highland Main Line.
 




#Article 439: Time zone (133 words)


A time zone is a region o the Yird that haes taen up the same staundart time, for ordinar cried 'local time'. Maist adjacent time zones is preceese ae oor apairt, an bi convention computes thair local time as an affset frae Greenwich Mean Time (see UTC an aw).

Staundart time zones can be defined bi geometrically subdividin the Yird's spheroid intae 24 lunes (wedge-shaped sections), bordered bi meridians ilk ane 15° o longitude apairt. The local time in neeghbourin zones wad differ bi ae oor. Houaniver, poleetical an geografical practicalities can result in irregular-shaped zones that follaes poleetical mairches or that chynges thair time saisonally (lik wi daylicht saufin time), as weel as bein subject tae antrin redefineetion as poleetical condeetions chynges.

Melbourne, Australie is +10 GMT

Unitit Kinrick is +0 GMT




#Article 440: The Beatles (549 words)


The Beatles wis an Inglis baund frae Liverpuil that's members wis John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, an Ringo Starr. They are ane o the maist commercially successfu an weel-respectit baunds in the history o popular muisic.

In the Unitit Kinrick, The Beatles released mair nor fowerty different singles, albums, an EPs that won til nummer ane. This commercial success wis repeatit in monny ither kintras: their record company, EMI, estimatit that by 1985 they had selt ower ane billyon discs an tapes warldwide. The Beatles is the best-sellin muisical act o aw time in the Unitit States, gaun by the Recordin Industry Association o Americae.

In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine rankit The Beatles nummer ane in its list o The 100 Greatest Airtists O Aw Time. Gaun by the selsame magazine, their innovative muisic an cultural impact helpit define the 1960s, an their influence on pop cultur is aye evident the day.

The Beatles led the mid-1960s muisical British Invasion in the the Unitit States. Awtho their ineetial muisical style wis ruitit in 1950s rock an rowe an hame-grown skiffle, the group explored genres reenging frae Tin Pan Alley tae psychadelic rock. Their claes, styles, an statements made thaim trend-setters, while their growin social awaurness shaws their influence extendit in tae the social an cultural revolutions o the 1962

In Mairch 1957, while gaun tae Quarry Bank Grammar School in Liverpool, John Lennon formed a skiffle group cawed The Quarrymen. Lennon an The Quarrymen met guitarist Paul McCartney at the Woolton Garden Fête, hauden at Saunt Peters Kirk on the 6t Juily 1957, an eikit him tae the group a few days efter. On 6t Februar 1958, the young guitarist George Harrison wis invitit tae watch the group (that played unnerr sindry different names) perform at Wilson Haw, Garstoun, Liverpuil. McCartney haed become acquent wi Harrison on the mornin schuil bus hurl tae the Liverpuil Institute, as they baith dwalt in Speak. At McCartneys insistance, Harrison jyned the Quarrymen as lead guitarist efter a rehersal in Mairch 1958, owercomin Lennon's ineetial reluctance acause o Harrison's young age. New members conteenad tae jyne an lea' the line-up durin that period, an in Januar 1960 Lennon's airt schuil freend Stuart Sutcliffe jyned on bass. Lennon an McCartney baith played rythm guitar an the group haed a heich turnower o drummers.

The Quarrymen gaed throu a progression o names — Johnny And The Moondogs, Long John And The Beatles, The Silver Beatles (derived frae Larry Parness suggeestion o Long John And The Silver Beetles) — afore settlin o The Beatles in August 1960. Thare's mony theories as tae the oreegin o the name an its unuisual spellin. It is for ordinar creedit tae Lennon, wha said that the name wis a combination wird-play on the insect clocks (Inglis: beetles) (as a referece tae Buddy Holly's baund, The Crickets) an the wird beat. Cynthia Lennon suggeestit that Lennon cleckit the name for The Beatles at a brainstorming session ower a beer-soakit teeple in the Renshaw Haw baur. Lennon, wha wis weel-kent for giein multiple versions o the same story, jokit in a 1961 Mersey Beat magazine airticle that It cam in a veesion – a man kythed on a bleizin pie an said tae them, 'Frae this day on ye're the Beatles.




#Article 441: Vienna (172 words)


Vienna () is the caipital ceety o Austrick, a naition in central Europe. It is the name gien tae the local admeenistrative territory. The ceety ligs on the river Danube, ane o the maist important rivers in central an eastren Europe. It haes a population o 1.8 million fowk, an is situate juist ower the mairch fae the caipital o Slovakie; Bratislava. Tradeetionally Vienna wis the frontier brig atween the Germanic an Slavic fowks that it bides tae this day.

Later, Vienna wad acome the admeenistrative centre o a muckle, multi-lingual empire; the kinrick o Austro-Hungary. Wi bonny baroque airchitectur, an a taste for aw things regal (lik horse buggies, pailaces, an famous cakes an confectionar), Vienna is a popular tourist attraction.

The ceety haes a guid trainsport infrastructur; wi baith trams an a metro servin commuters. The maist weel-kent attraction is Stephansdom (a muckle mediaeval kirk wi a kenspeckle ruif), an the palace o Schönbrunn. A modren maun-see wad be the Hundertwasserhaus, a heich hoose designed bi Austrian airtist Friedensreich Hundertwasser.




#Article 442: Diablo 2 (200 words)


Diablo II is a gemme makkit by Blizzard North, that is pairt o Blizzard Entertainment,  in 2000.  The expansion, Diablo II: Lord of Destruction, wis makkit a couple months efter.   

The story begins wi a daurk raker that traivels ben a kirk ownt by skellums.  In a wee efter, mony wiiricowes, deid fowk, an beasts stravaig the leid.  The hero maun kill Andarial, the Maiden o Anguish so that thare is peace.  The hero follaes the daurk raker to the ceety o Lut Gohlein whaur the wiiricowe, Baal, the Lord o Destruction, is stuck in an auld warlock, Tal Rasha.  The daurk raker lowses Baal an thay traivel tae the auld ceety o Kurast whaur Mephisto, the Lord o Hatred bides.  The daurk raker shifts tae Diablo, the Lord o Terror, an the three brithers open the port tae Hell.  The hero kills Mephisto an gaes in Hell tae kill Diablo.  Efter Diablo dees, the hero gaes north tae Mount Arreat that is whaur Baal is.  Baal is thare acause he seeks tae fyle the Worldstone that will malafouster the mairch o Heiven, Hell, an the warld.  The hero kills Baal, but the Worldstone maun be malafoustered an that's bad.




#Article 443: Doric (717 words)


Doric wis aince uised tae ettle aw byleid o Scots but is maistly uised as a name for the byleid that fowk spik in the nor east o Scotland.

The main differs in soond atween Doric an ither Scots byleids is as follaes:

Doric hauds a number o wirds nae foond in ither byleids o Scots. For exemplar, it hauds a few lanewirds frae Scots Gaelic, as weel as Norse sith it expanded intil airts whaur fowk aince spak Scottish Gaelic an intil the Eastern Hielans. But there's nae lanewirds frae Pictish, ither than in placenames, them beginnin wi Pit-, in parteeclar.

As wi ither airts o Scotland, the traivellin fowk haed a distinct lexis o Doric, a fair bit o it recorded in Stanley Robertson's stories.

The wird Doric wis uised tae ettle aw byleids o Scots as a jocular reference tae the Dorian byleid o Greek.  The Greek Dorians bade in Sparta, a mair rural airt o Greece, an wis supposed tae hae spak laconically bi the ither ancient Greeks, uisin a wey o spikkin that was thocht harsher in soond an mair auld farrant than the Attic spaken in Athens.  Doric Greek wis uised for the verses spaken bi the chorus in Greek tragedy.

Uiss o the wird Doric in this wey micht areese forby oot o a contrast wi the anglifeed claik o the Scots caipital, sin at ae time, Edinburgh wis bynamed 'The Athens o the North'. The upper/middle claiss wey o spikkin in Edinburgh wad thus be 'Attic', makkin the rural airts' claik, 'Doric'. Contrair regions like Lanrikshire, far chenge driven bi industrial novation wis kenspeckle, the shires o the Mearns, Aiberdeen, Banff an Moray bade affa landward in nature an keepit a strang sense o thair heirship an tradeetions.

The first Scot that gied the name Doric tae Scots-spikkin wis the makar Aulan Ramsay in 1721, associatin Scots wi the landward, peasantry or wirkin fowk: it wis anither wey o sayin kintra or teuchter spik; simple, pure, an plain-spikkin. But fowk comin efter him files eesed the name in a derogator wey, makkin oot it wis auld-farrant or couthy ayont aa. Screivars in Ingland files cryed the spik o the peasantry o Ingland Doric an-aa. 

Doric wis first eesed for tae descrive the byleid o North East Scots in 1792 fan it wis eesed bi the Banffshire-born academic Alexander Geddes. 

Nor-east Scots haes a muckle body o leeteratur, maistly poetry, ballads an sangs. Whan Doric kythes in prose, it is maistly as fowk spikkin, tho this isna as common as it wis. As is aften the case wi leids on the margin, local lealties haud tae in the written form, shawin the wey the variety differs frae staundart (British) English as opposed tae the Scots norm. This shaws itsel in the local media presentation o the leid e.g. Grampian Television an The Press and Journal. Thae local lealties, an the relative distance frae the Central Lawlands, gies the Doric spikkers their ain wey in mony things.

The Nor East haes been cried the real hame o the ballad, an Les Wheeler seys, 91 oot o a gran total o (Child's) 305 ballads cam frae the North East - in fact frae Aiberdeenshire, makkin the uisual name o Border Ballad a misnomer pit aboot bi Sir Walter Scott.

Doric wis uised in a wheen o sae-caed, 'Kailyard' leeteratur, a genre that pents a sentimental, melodramatic pictur o the auld rural life, an is richt unfashionable ay noo. This negative associationplagues Doric leeteratur til a degree yet, as weel as Scottish leeteratur in general.

The maist kenspeckle novelist tae uise Doric in his novels wis George MacDonald frae Huntly. He is aftimes conseedered ane o the faithers o the Fantasy genre, an influence on C.S. Lewis an Tolkien, an a freen o Mark Twain.

Lewis Grassic Gibbon's Scots Quair trilogy taks place in the Mearns, an haes been the foond o a successful play an telly series. It is weel-liked aw throu Scotland, an tells the story o Chrissie, an independent-minded quine, maistly in a form o English strangly influenced bi the rhythms o the local claik.

A version o Aesop's Fables haes been published in Doric, as weel as some sections o the Bible.

Gin I was God by Charles Murray




#Article 444: Gordon Brown (458 words)


James Gordon Brown (born 20 Februar 1951) is a Breetish politeecian that wis Prime Meenister o the Unitit Kinrick an Leader o the Labour Pairty frae 2007 tae 2010. He served as Chancellor o the Exchequer in the Blair Govrenment frae 1997 tae 2007. Brown wis a Member o Pairlament (MP) frae 1983 tae 2015, first for Dumfaurlin East an later for Kirkcaudy an Coudenbeith.

A doctoral graduate o the Varsity o Edinburgh, Brown spent his early career wirkin as baith a lecturer at a further eddication college an a telly jurnalist. He entered Pairlament in 1983 as the MP for Dumfaurlin East. He jyned the Shaidae Cabinet in 1989 as Shaidae Secretar o State for Tred, an wis later promotit tae acome Shaidae Chancellor o the Exchequer in 1992. Efter Labour's veectory in 1997, he wis appyntit Chancellor o the Exchequer, acomin the langest-servin hauder o that office in modren history.

Brown's time as Chancellor wis merked bi major reform o Breetain's monetar an fiscal policy airchitectur, transferrin interest rate settin pouers tae the Bank o Ingland, bi a wide extension o the pouers o the Thesaury tae kiver muckle domestic policy an bi transferrin responsibility for bankin superveesion tae the Financial Services Authority. Controversial muives includit the aboleetion o advance corporation tax (ACT) relief in his first budget, an the remuival in his feenal budget o the 10% stairtin rate o personal income tax that he haed introduced in 1999. In 2007, Tony Blair resigned as Prime Meenister an Labour Leader an Brown wis chuisen tae replace him in an uncontestit election.

Efter ineetial rises in opeenion polls follaein Brown acomin Prime Meenister, Labour's popularity declined wi the onset o a recession in 2008, leadin tae puir results in the local an European elections in 2009. A year later, Labour lost 91 seats in the Hoose o Commons at the 2010 general election, the pairty's biggest loss o seats in a single general election syne 1931, makkin the Conservatives the lairgest pairty in a hung pairlament. Brown remeened in office as Labour negotiatit tae form a coaleetion govrenment wi the Leeberal Democrats. On 10 Mey 2010, Brown annoonced he wad staund doun as leader o the Labour Pairty, an instructit the pairty tae pit intae motion the processes tae elect a new leader. Labour's attempts tae retain pouer failed an on 11 Mey, he offeecially resigned as Prime Meenister an Leader o the Labour Pairty. He wis succeedit as Prime Meenister bi David Cameron, an as Leader o the Labour Pairty bi Ed Miliband.

Later, Brown played a prominent role in the campaign surroondin the Scots unthirldom referendum o 2014, galvanisin support behind mainteenin the union. In 2017, Brown published his autobiografie, My Life, Our Times.




#Article 445: Swade (684 words)


The neep, aiblins mair correctly the Swade neep (Brassica napobrassica, or Brassica napus var. napobrassica), is a vegetable growed maistly for its ruits tae be aet bi humans an as fodder for beasts. Neeps cam frae the hutherin o Brassica oleracea (kail an its maiks) an Brassica rapa (a group that includes white turnips, bok choy an maiks). The terminology an uiss o the name neep tae effeir tae a hantle o gey sib vegetables growed in Scotland is dernt an taigelt aften wi ae name gien tae twa sindert vegetables. The day, neeps (chappit) are weel-kent as ae pairt o a Burns' Supper, aet alang wi haggis an chappit tatties.

The Scots wird neep cam frae Middle English nepe, that itsel cam frae Auld English næp. The wird neep effeirt tae the white or common turnip (B. rapa) in Scotland frae afore the 15t C,  an syne tae B. napobrassica efter it wis brocht tae Scotland frae Scandinavia.

Whan first plantit athort Scotland in the 18t C, the ruit wis cried ruta baga an Swedish neep tae sindert it frae the hamelt kynd (B. rapa) that haed aye been growen in Scotland. Ruta baga (nou rutabaga) is frae the Swedish wird rotabagge meanin ruit poke. Whiles the feck o Scots cry the ruits neeps the day, some pairts o Scotland uise the wird baigies; the wird is thocht tae cam frae rutabaga

Wi the agricultural revolution o the 18t century, a wheen o new an sindry craps war brocht tae Scotland, ane o sicna craps wis the neep. No aa parochs in Scotland taen tae the Swedish neep richt awa. In Kilconquhar paroch, Fife, the Swedish neep wis first sawn in 1786 an wis heezit as a crap at wis hardier nor the common neep agin frost an flees.

Aathou the Swedish neep wisna sae ready tae bolt as the common ane an didna scrocken an foust efter crappin siclike the common neep, it wis aften a guid while afore fairmers in some parochs wad taen tae the new kynd. In twa-three pairts, the sawin o Swedish neeps dwyned awa efter bein fouthie--in Broughton, Peebles in 1845, it wis said at the Swedish Turnip has fallen into disrepute.

The day, neeps are a fouthie an wallie crap growen in Scotland. In 2016, the year hairst o neeps wis 58,000 tonne . Maist grund gien tae growin neeps is for stockfeed. O the about 6,000 hectare o neeps growen in Scotland 2011, about three-quarter wis winter feed for beasts. 

Afore pumpkins wis easy gotten in Scotland (nae lang syne), swades an neeps wis howed an cairved wi faces for tae mak lantrens for Hallae e'en.

The Swades ceuks swades wi tatties an champ them wi butter an milk tae mak a puree cried rotmos (ruit mash). In Norrowey, swades is mixed wi tatties, cairots, ingans an ream for tae mak a seemlar mixtur-maxtur cried kålrabistappe. In Scotland, the same vegetables is byled an champit seperate for tae mak neeps an tatties, tradeetionally serred wi the Scots naitional dish o haggis as the main coorse o a Burns supper. Neeps is uised forby in mony soups an stews. In Canadae neeps is uised as fuller in fuids sic as mincemeat an Christenmas cake, or as a side dish wi Sunday denner in Atlantic Canadae. In the US, neeps is for the maist pairt eaten as pairt o stews or casseroles, is serred champit wi cairots, or is beuk in a bridie.

The toun o Cumberland, Wisconsin, USA, rins a Rutabaga Festival ilka year, aye the weekend afore Labour Day Weekend. The International Rutabaga Curling Championship taks place ance a year at the Ithaca, New York fermers' mercat.

Ower muckle consumption o swades (as weel as cassava, maize, bamboo shuits, sweet tatties, an lima beans) can be associate wi hypothyroidism. Thae cyanoglucoside-haudin fuids gies oot cyanide. Syne it's detoxifee'd intae thiocyanate. Thiocyanate hauds back thyroid iodide transport an, for muckle doses, competes wi iodide in the organeefication process athin thyroid tissue. Goiters can growe whan there is mair thiocyanate-haudin fuid in the diet nor iodine-haudin fuid.




#Article 446: Calgacus (228 words)


Calgacus (whiles cried Calgacos or Galgacus) wis a Caledonian chieftain that wis the leader o the Caledonian Confederacy that focht agin the Roman airmy o Gnaeus Julius Agricola at the Battle o Mons Grapius in northren Scotland in AD 83 or 84. 

His name is considered to mean The Swordsman.

Awmaist naething is kent anent the life o Calgacus. It isna e'en kent whither he existit or no. If he wis real then aw that can be said anent him is that he wis a gey pouerfu man that cam tae be leader o the Pechts. John Prebble haes this tae say anent him:

The ae historical soorce that haes him in it is Tactius' Agricola, that cries him:

Calgacus isna mentiont durin or efter the battle an he isna named as ane o the preesoners Agriocola teuk wi him efter pittin the Caledonians tae flicht. It therefor isna clear as tae whither he wis slain in the fecht or escapit tae play a pairt in the the uneasy peace o the follaein years.

Tacitus wrate a speech an attributit it tae Calgacus afore the Battle o Mons Grapius that descrieves the exploitation o Britain bi Rome an rouses his sodgers for the fecht. 
The historian Simon Schama cried it 

Here is the speech as written bi Tacitus in the Agricola (Beuk 30):

O this speech, Schama writes:




#Article 447: Robert Henryson (646 words)


Robert Henryson (c. 1425 − c. 1500), kent as Robert Henderson, Robert Henrysoun an aw, wis a Scots makar, jaloused tae hae been a member o the Clan Henderson o Fordell, tho thare isna ony clear evidents that this is the case.

Gey little is kent anent his life, as wi maist o the lave o fowk frae that time.  Thare isna ony record o him haein studied at the Varsity o Saunt Andras (that wis the ae Scots varsity at the time), but in 1462 a Maister Robert Henryson is named amang thaim taen intil the newly stairtit Varsity o Glesgae.  It is likely that his first learnins wis feenished at a varsity in some ither kintra, sic as the Varsity o Pairis or the Varsity o Leuven.  It is written on the teetle-page o the 1570 edeetion o his Fables that he wis scholemaister of Dunfermling, likely o the grammar-schuil o the Benedictine Dunfaurlin Aibey.

Syne William Dunbar writes o him as deid in his Lament for the Makaris, his daith micht be pitten aboot 1500.

M.M. Gray haes this tae say o Henryson's wark:

Hugh MacDiarmid is amang mony that see Henryson as mair better nor Dunbar as a poet.  Dunbar is aftentimes hauden tae be mair guid at the techniques, but Henryson's wark is mair aften hauden tae be mair universal nor Dunbar's.

Henryson's langest an in mony weys his maist oreeginal wark is his Morall Fabillis of Esope - a gaitherin o thirteen fables, pitten ower intae Scots, wi mair nor a wee bit o rewirkin bi Henryson.  Thir includes Toun Mous and Uplandis Mouse, The Fox, the Wolf and the Cadger an ithers.  Tho the fables comes frae lang syne an pre-dates Christianity, Henryson's retellin shaws a wheen Biblical influence, for example he maks a wouf an a laum hae a debate anent inheritin punishment for sin wi reference tae the Buik o Ezekiel.  In anithir ane, he maks a link atween his fable o a cock that ignores a precious stane in his midden in favour o fuid an Christ's sayin anent castin pearls tae swine ().  Whiles the fables can be interpretit on several levels - for ordinar leeteral an allegorical.

The auldest texts is the Chartens Text, prentit bi Lekpreuik in Embra in 1570 an the Harleian MS. No. 3865 in the Breetish Museum.

In The Testament of Cresseid, Henryson eiks tae Chaucer's tale o Troilus wi the story o the traigic daith o Cresseid frae lepracy.  Hielichts o the poem is the innin an its descreeption o winter an auld age; the tellin o Cresseid's lepracy an in the end her daith.  Efter the Morall Fabillis of Esope, this is his maist kent wark.

The follaein is frae the innin tae the poem:

The poem kent as Orpheus and Eurydice, that's taen frae Boethius, hae some guid pairts, sic as the leerical lament o Orpheus, wi the refrains Quhar art thow gane, my luf Erudices? an My lady quene and luf, Erüdices. It is follaed bi a lang moralatis as in the Fables.

Some thirteen shorter poems haes been ascribed tae Henryson an aw.  O thir the pastoral ane Robyne and Makyne is the maist weel kent, follaed bi The Thrie Deid Pollis.  Unlik maist o the minor poems, thir dinna lippen on Chaucerian tradeetion.  The ither pieces is anent normal 15t Century topics sic as Eild, Daith, Morality, etc.

The MS soorces for the text is the Asloan, Bannatyne, Maitland Folio, Makculloch, Gray and Riddell. Chepman and Myllar's Prints (1508) haes preserred twa o the minor poems an a fragment o Orpheus and Eurydice. The first hale edeetion wis redd bi David Laing (1 vol., Edinburgh, 1865).

Robert Henryson is commemoratit in Makars' Coort, outbye The Writers' Museum in Lady Stairs Close, Edinburgh, wi a quote frae Toun Mouse and Uplanis Mouse frae the Fables:




#Article 448: John Smeaton (200 words)


John Smeaton is a baggage haundler at Glesgae Internaitional Airport. He became inrowed in coonterin a failt terrorist bellum on the airport.  Altho regairdit as a Glaswegian, Smeaton actually bides in Erskine, a wee toun ootwi the ceety nae faur frae the airport.  He wis eddicate at Park Mains Heich Schuil.

Whan he first leuked til the bellum, Smeaton wis ootside the airport smeekin a cigarette in his break.  Efterhaund, he myndit his foremaist thochts at seein the ootgang o the twa suspects frae the bleizin caur an thair attack on the aesome polisman that's ettle wis tae daunten thaim:  Whit's the score?  A'v got tae git this sortit.

The statement that seems tae hae been maist taen tent o, tho, wis John's message til terrorists (whan speirt bi ITV News):  Glasgow doesna accept this.  This is Glasgow;  we'll set aboot ye.

The brawest thing aboot John's ongaun, housomeiver, whit seems tae hoise him the heichmaist, is the fact that he seems tae be laith tae be ruised for his actions in the hail event.  His honesty, his bein taen, an his bein blate aw sers thegither tae mak him a hero, naithers (or mair likely, acause o) his hummleness.




#Article 449: Scotland the Brave (435 words)


Scotland the Brave is a sang which is thocht tae be ane o Scotland's national anthem.

Hark when the night is falling,

Hear! Hear the pipes a calling.

Loudly and proudly calling,

Down thro' the glen.

There where the hills are sleeping,

now feel the blood a leaping,

High as the spirits of the old Highland men.

Towering in gallant fame,

Scotland my mountain hame,

High may your proud

standards gloriously wave,

Land of my high endeavour,

Land of the shining river,

Land of my heart for ever,

Scotland the brave.

High in the misty Highlands,

Out by the purple islands,

Brave are the hearts that beat

Beneath Scottish skies.

Wild are the winds to meet you,

Staunch are the friends that greet you,

Kind as the love that shines

from fair maidens' eyes.

Far off in sunlit places,

Sad are the Scottish faces,

Yearning to feel the kiss

Of sweet Scottish rain.

Where tropic skies are beaming,

Love sets the heart a-dreaming,

Longing and dreaming for the homeland again.

Thare ir ither Inglis wards be John McDermott (also kent as Scotland Forever):

Let Italy boast of her gay gilded waters,
Her vines and her bowers and her soft sunny skies,
Her sons drinking love from the eyes of her daughters,
Where freedom expires amid softness and sighs.

Scotland's blue mountains wild where hoary cliffs are piled,
Towering in grandeur are dearer tae me,
Land of the misty cloud land of the tempest loud,
Land of the brave and proud land of the free.

Enthroned on the peak of her own highland mountains,
The spirit of Scotia reigns fearless and free,
Her green tartan waving o'er blue rock and fountain,
And proudly she sings looking over the sea.

Here among my mountains wild I have serenely smiled,
When armies and empires against me were hurled,
Firm as my native rock I have withstood the shock,
Of England, of Denmark, of Rome and the world.

But see how proudly her war steeds are prancing,
Deep groves of steel trodden down in their path,
The eyes of my sons like their bright swords are glancing,
Triumphantly riding through ruin and death.

Bold hearts and nodding plumes wave o'er their bloody tombs,
Deepeyed in gore is the green tartan's wave,
Shivering are the ranks of steel dire is the horseman's wheel,
Victorious in battlefield Scotland the brave.

Bold hearts and nodding plumes wave o'er their bloody tombs,
Deepeyed in gore is the green tartan's wave,
Shivering are the ranks of steel dire is the horseman's wheel,
Victorious in battlefield Scotland the brave,
Victorious in battlefield Scotland the brave.




#Article 450: Turisas (407 words)


Turisas is a fowk metal baund frae Finland.  Thay war stairtit in 1997 bi Mathias Nygård an Jussi Wickström.  Thay are cried efter Turisas, a Finnish god o war that wis wirshipped in the langsyne.

Nou ten year auld, Turisas wis a wee baund in thair native Finland until the success o thair first album Battle Metal propelled thaim aw o a suddent intae fame an recogneetion in the internaitional metal community.  The positive reaction o the muisic press tae that album, an the fact that thay than toured the Unitit Kinrick wi thair kintramen Lordi gien thaim something o a springbuird for success in the UK.  This is bein follaed up wi hie profile appearances sic as on the TV special Get in the Ring an the warld famous Download Festival.  In 2007 thay gaed on a heidline tour o the Unitit Kinrick , tae support thair secicont album, The Varangian Way - a concept album tellin the tale o a curn o Northmen on a vaige frae Scandanavie tae Byzantium.  A seicont UK tour s' follae in Spring 2008, wi twa Scots dates.

The situation as tae line-up isnae cleir the nou, ordinar accordianist Janne Lisko Mäkinen gaed missin in action efter a shaw in Amsterdam in Februar 2008, an haes at least in the short term been replaced wi Netta Skog, that filled in durin the European tour wi Iced Yird in late 2007.

Turisas jynes thegithir pouer metal an a tait black metal wi Finnish fowk muisic.  Thair first album wis cried Battle Metal an this haes caused baith fowk metal an pouer metal tae be cried Battle Metal (this term is maist uised bi Metal Hammer magazine, but no bi maist metal fans).  Some fowk cries thaim Viking Metal, but syne thay are Finns an the Finns warna Vikings this isna haily richt.  The term Viking Metal is raither braid an includes baunds that's no seemilar tae Turisas at aw.  For ordinar, the term fowk metal is tae be preffered.  It shoud be mynt, but that Nygård ance said:

The baund haes a gey guid reputation as a live act.  Thay gae onstage in warpent an wi claes meant tae resemmle thir o Finnish warriours in the langsyne (tho live session member Antii Laurila aften plays in the scud).  Thay hae guid humour live, wi saunas an aff the waw kivers o sic sangs as Rasputin bi Boney M bein a featur.




#Article 451: Fowk metal (1207 words)


Fowk metal is a kynd o metal muisic that taks elements o fowk muisic an jynes it thegither wi metal. Mair or less ony baund that jynes fowk muisic wi some kynd o metal is cried fowk metal - the metal is ordinar black metal, pouer metal or deid metal, tho ithir kynds is uised forby.

Fowk metal bands aften soond gey different frae ilk ither for twa main raisons. First, they are commin frae different fowk muisic tradeetions (sae a fowk metal baund frae Finland is gaun tae soond different tae ane frae the Faroe Islands ) an sae the fowk elements will be disteenctive tae ilka kintra. Seicond, they are commin frae different kynds o metal (sae a fowk metal baund that haes strang deid metal influence winna soond the same as ane that haes strang pouer metal influence, e'en gin they draw frae the same fowk tradeetion e.g. German). The reenge o metal genres taen intil fowk metal is gey braid - some baunds draws frae ae kynd of metal, e.g. Elvenking taks pouer metal for ordinar or Windir uises anerly black metal. Ither baunds jynes thegither different kynds o metal - e.g. Turisas jynes pouer metal, a tait black metal etc.

Syne maist fowk metal baunds is frae Europe, the maist ordinar fowk tradeetions uised bi thaim is European. Baunds frae Ireland taks a mair Celtic soond, while baunds sic as Skyforger is mair Baltic soondin, syne they are frae Latvie. Essentially, baunds taks the fowk muisic tradeetions frae their ain kintra. This haes led tae labels sic as Celtic metal - it shoud be taen tae mynd that baunds that cries thaimsels Pagan metal, Celtic metal, North American metal etc. is for ordinar fowk metal.

Fowk metal baunds isna anerly diferent in their wale o kynds o metal an fowk, but in the wey that they jyne the twa thegither an aw. For example, fowk melodies can be played on a fowk instrument (sic as a kantele) or on the electric guitar or baith. Fowk melodies can be heard ower a metal rhythm, metal riffs can be heard ower fowk rhythms an sae on. Fowk melodies can be oreeginal or tradeetional - baunds whiles kiver hail tradeetional sangs; e.g. Ensiferum kivered a short sang frae the Finnish naitional epic the Kalevala on their Dragonheads EP. At the same time, baunds whiles taks sangs frae ither genres an chyngee thaim intae a fowk metal style; e.g. Turisas haed a kiver o Those Were The Days on ane o their early demos, an aften kiver Boney M's Rasputin live.

The muckle variations in different kynds o fowk muisic means that there is muckle variations in the fowk elements in fowk metal. Semple dance rhythms sic as jig an polka isna byordinar. At the same time, some baunds haes mair complex an progressive scrievins in their sangs - Turisas is a guid exemplar o siclike. Muckle, ruisin owerwirds for singin alang is gey ordinar, as they are in mony strynds o fowk muisic.

The degree that fowk muisic is uised in fowk metal chynges frae baund tae baund. Some plays mainly some kynd o metal wi a tait fowk eikit til it, while some haes fowk muisic (melodies, instrumentation etc.) as mair integral tae their muisic, sic as the Finnish baund Korpiklaani.

Vocals in fowk metal is raither varied, dependin on whit kynd o metal is bein uised as the metal element. Sae deid metal style harsk vocals, black metal style vocals, clean vocals, queirs etc. is aw uised.

In some respects, fowk metal shares common grund wi ither genres o metal in leerical terms - sangs anent war, releegion etc. isna byordinar, for exemplar. It shoud be merkit that mony baunds sings in the leids o their ain kintra raither nor the Inglis (that's sae muckle a lingua franca in metal muisic as in ony ither sphere o communication). Maist fowk metal baunds will hae a mixtur-maxter approach, wi some leerics in the Ingles an ithers in, for example, the Finnish leid.

Some baunds taks maist o their leerics frae the history o their kintra. Skyforger frae Latvie is a guid exemplar. Korpiklaani hae a couple o sangs anent Finnish history, as dae Turisas.

Its mair common for baunds tae sing anent their kintra's meethologie. Týr frae the Faroe Islands haes mony sangs anent Norse meethologie, Korpiklaani aften sings anent Finnish meeths sic as trowes, as dae their kintramen Finntroll. Mair nor a twa-three fowk metal baunds frae Finland haes based leerics on their naitional epic, Kalevala.

A wheen o fowk metal sangs is anent drinkin, aften in a humourous mainer, but no aye. . Ensiferum haes One More Magic Potion on their album Victory Songs, Turisas haes One More on Battle Metal an Korpiklaani haes a wheen o thaim: Beer Beer, Wooden Pints, Happy Little Boozer an refers tae drinkin in ither sangs. In fact, Trollfest frae Norrowey cried their first album Wilkommen Folk Tell Drekka Fest that gaes ower intae Scots, neir eneuch, as Walcome, Fowk, tae the Drinkin Fest.

As wi a wheen o fowk music, a wheen o fowk metal is anent forests, ainimals, huntin an bens etc. A great deal o this owerlaps wi leerics anent meethology an paganism. Leerics anent naitur is for ordinar a celebration o it.

Some fowk metal is based on pagan releegion, aither throu the beliefs o the baund members or semply throu bein based on meethology. This haes led tae the term Pagan metal bein uised; that in maist cases is semply fowk metal wi a pagan focus. Skyforger aften sings anent Latvian paganism; Turisas scrieved in the liner-jottins tae Sahti-Waari, a sang on Battle Metal that is 

Mony fowk-metal baunds uises auld pagan seembols in their album airtwark etc. e'en gin they dinna sing anent paganism.
Some fowk metal is hostile tae releegions sic as Christianity - Finntroll is a guid exemplar o this, but is whiles haurd tae tell gin they are bein sairious or no.
At the ither end o the scale is bands sic as Holy Blood frae Ukraine that's Christians an sings anent their faith in Jesus an their Christian faith in maist o their sangs sic as The Spring.

Some ither baunds, sic as Ensiferum haes sangs anent ordinar fantasy relatit topics wi nae speceefic reference tae paganism or meethology. Mony o the bands wi fantasy relatit leerics haes been influenced tae some degree bi Tolkien's wark The Lord of the Rings an ither sic fantasy beuks.

No mony fowk metal baunds sings anent politics. The main exception is Skyclad frae Ingland that hae a left-wing. libertarian view no aften tae be seen in metal. There's a wee element o faur-richt an Neo-Nazi fowk metal an aw, thou is shoud be merkit that whiles fowk lowp tae wrang conclusions anent the poleetical leanins o a baund based on their uiss o auld pagan seembols, that mony o haes been uised bi faur-richt groups an aw. A nummer o baunds sic as Skyforger haes publicly said they dinna uphaud Nazism, racism, the faur-richt etc. for tae evyte confusion an no be taintit wi the reputation o bein faur-richt thaimsels.

Fer mair anent fowk metal, see the wabstaids belaw:




#Article 452: Pouer metal (1203 words)


Pouer metal is a kynd o metal muisic that tends tae focus on creatin an epic feel in baith muisical an leerical terms. It is quite popular amang metal fans (mair sae recent thanks tae the popularity o DragonForce), but ootwi thaim isna weel kent at aw.

Tho pouer metal taks a wheen o influence frae mair tradeetional metal soorces (Iron Maiden in parteecular), it hes evolved ower the twa decades o its exeestence intae a disteenctive genre in its ain richt. It is for ordinar acceptit amang pouer metal fans that the genre's history proper stairts wi the twa Helloween albums Keeper of the Seven Keys in pairts I an II in 1987 an 1988. Some threap that Manowar war the first pouer metal baund, but syne thair muisic is for ordinar mair tradeetional heavy metal wi epic, fantasy based leerics an syne thay thaimsels dinna cry thaimsels pouer metal, Helloween's claim tae be the first is for ordinar acceptit. Efter the first wave o pouer metal baunds haed ceased tae be excitin an new, HammerFall's debut album Glory to the Brave in 1997 stairtit something o a pouer metal revival that includit sic baunds as Rhapsody of Fire (tho at that time thay war cried Rhapsody) an Edguy - tho Edguy haed been aboot syne 1992, it wisna until thair Vain Glory Opera album o 1998 that thay haed thair brekthrou.

Maist pouer metal baunds hae a seemilar lineup o vocals, guitars (twa, for ordinar), bass, keybuirds an drums - tho obviously this is flexible tae some degree. Maist pouer metal is fast an melodic, tho gallop rhythms an mid tempo sangs arna byordinar for maist baunds.

For ordinar pouer metal singin is hie pitched (ZP Theart o DragonForce an Tony Kakko o Sonata Arctica is guid exemplars o the teepical tenor pouer metal sangster) an is awmaist aye clear (thus defined as clean vocals as agin the harsk vocals in deid metal an black metal. It isna byordinar tae hae queirs in the owerwirds (as Rhapsody of Fire aften daes), but it is mair common tae hae muckle, ruisin owerwirds athoot queirs. Gey few pouer metal singers doubles as instrumentalists, but the setup isna unkent.

Pouer metal guitarists for ordinar plays fast streams o notes, but chynges chords comparatively slaw, ance per meisur or slawer. Lead guitar lines is aften gey melodic an technically demaundin, an is aften hairmonised, aither wi keybuirds or a seicont guitar pairt.
Solos is awmaist aye gey fast an demaundin, wi tappin bein common (Herman Li o DragonForce an Jani Liimatainen o Sonata Arctica is guid exemplars o pouer metal guitarists in terms o technique).
Pouer metal tends tae uise guitar as a melodic, raither nor a rhythmic instrument.

Maist bass in pouer metal is fast, ruit-note playin, tho some bassists is mair melodic nor that. Gin Manowar is bein coontit as pouer metal raither nor heavy metal than thair bassist Joey DeMaio is likely the maist weel kent bassist in the genre.

Mony pouer metal baunds haes taen keybuirds intae thair arrangements - the usin o thaim varies frae suttle accentin an ootlinin o chords (Kamelot uises keybuirds lik that) tae mair orchestral, melodic lines (sic as Luca Turilli an Rhapsody of Fire). Some baunds that cry thaimsels Symphonic Pouer Metal sic as Nightwish haes been kent tae uise fou orchestras whan recordin mair symphonic elements, tho thay will tend tae replicate thir elements on keybuirds whan playin live.

A wheen o pouer metal drummers uises twa bass drums for mair speed, meanin thay can play a constant stream o saxteenth notes (semiquavers) wi snare drum accents on the beats. This style is quite common in pouer metal as in ither heavy metal genres, tho it isna uised bi aw drummers bi ony means. Blast beat drummin is gey common an aw.

Mony teepical metal themes sic as anti-Christianity an poleetical issues isna common in pouer metal, but thay arna unkent (eg. Stratovarius aften scrieve anent a warld view based on Marxism). The stereotype o pouer metal leerics is that thay are aw anent fantasy an meethology, an tho that is a raither braid generalisation, it is true tae some extent. Mony baunds sic as Rhapsody of Fire sings exclusively anent fantasy relatit topics, while some sic as Manowar daes sae as weel as singin anent metal cultur. Raither mair rare is baunds sic as Sonata Arctica that aften sings anent mair general topics sic as luve. Some baunds taks a focus o a parteecular kynd o history, aften in concept albums - e.g. Iced Earth's The Glorious Burden is anent American history.

American pour metal emerged in the 1980s as an affshuit o heavy metal an speed metal. For ordinar it is fast, strauchtforrit an somewhit heavy an aggressive, but wi a distinct epic fecthin feel. Keybuirds dinna tak a lead role in this kynd o metal at aw, wi the focus bein mainly on vocals an riffs. The muisic is gey seemilar tae its influences, but cleckit the term pouer metal an wis important in inspirin the later melodic pouer metal muivement. Europe haes its ain baunds plyin a gey seemilar style sic as Grave Digger. The maist weel kent baund o this genre is wioot a dout Manowar.

This style emergit in the 1980s wi Germany's Helloween an Finland's Stratovarius wi a strang focus on melody an positive, upliftin themes. This kynd o pouer metal haes mair in the wey o keybuirds an neo-classical guitar solos. The leerics o this brainch o pouer metal is for ordinar anent hie fantasy. HammerFall an Blind Guardian is amang the leadin baunds in this genre.

This is a mixtur-maxter o the (for orndinar hie pitched) harsk vocals (or mixed clean an harsk vocals)) an aggressive feel o melodic deid metal wi the melodies an keybuirds o pouer metal. This genre is heivily based in Finland. It is distinct frae melodic deid metal bi its heivy uiss o keybuirds an neo-clessical influenced guitar. Children of Bodom's earlier wark coud be cried Extreme Pouer Metal, as coud the wark o Norther an DragonForce.

As the name suggeests, this is a mixtur-maxter o fowk music an pouer metal, owerlappin wi the braider fowk metal genre. The fowk elements is teepically uised for tae mak a Medieval feel, as in fowk metal. Falconer an Elvenking is aften pitten intae this genre.

Pouer metal that's influenced bi clessic progressive rock an metal baunds sic as Rush an Dream Theater. It featurs a mair complex an varied approach tae sang-writin nor tradeetional pouer metal.

This refers tae pouer metal baunds that maks uiss o intruments for ordinar foond in clessical muisic or that imiates thir instuments wi synthesisers. Thir elements is mair aften uised as key pairts o the muisic nor is common in ither kynds o pouer metal. Nightwish an Rhapsody of Fire is guid exemplars o that genre.

This is clearly pouer metal wi influence frae thrash metal. The hie, clean vocals an melodies o pouer metal tends tae be retained, but aften wi the aggressive riffs, some shootit vocals an leerical themes taen frae thrash metal. Iced Earth is aiblins the best exemplar o Thrash Pouer Metal.




#Article 453: Ensiferum (464 words)


Ensiferum (Frae the Latin ensĭfĕrum (neuter adjective) meanin swuird beirin) is a Fowk metal baund frae Helsinki, Finland. The baund cry thaimsels Heroic Fowk Metal.

Ensiferum wis foondit in 1995 bi Markus Toivonen (guitar), Sauli Savolainen (bass) an Kimmo Miettinen (drums). The neist year Jari Mäenpää jyned the baund as sangster an seicont guitarist. In 1997 the first demo conteenin three sangs wes released.
In 1998 Sauli an Kimmo quat the baund an wis replaced bi Jukka-Pekka Miettinen (Kimmo's wee brithir that wis than juist 14 year auld) an Oliver Fokin. In 1999 twa mair demos wis released. In 2000 thay contractit tae Spinefarm Records an gaed intae the studio for tae wark on thair first album Ensiferum that wis released in August 2001. Juist efter the album wis released, Meiju Enho jyned thaim as keybuirdist.
Efter the wark on the seicont album Iron wis duin in 2003, sangster Jari quat the baund for tae concentrate mair on his project Wintersun. This coud hae caused a wheen o problems for the baund sen he wis the main leeracist an scrieved a lot o the muisic an aw. The baund, nivertheless, decidit tae continue athoot him an pressed on wi promotin the album an scrievin new sangs. For the tour wi Finntroll for tae promote the album, Petri Lindroos frae Norther replaced Jari as guitarist an sangster, an offeecialy jyned the baund permanent efter the tour. Jukka-Pekka quat the baund in December 2004 an wis replaced bi Sami Hinkka, wha is the main leeracist the nou. Oliver quat in 2005 tae be replaced bi Janne Parviainen.
The new line-up o Ensiferm returned tae the studio later that year for tae record an EP cried Dragonheads. It wis released in Februar 2006. As weel as the title sang, it haed twa rewrocht sangs frae thair early days, an Amorphis kiver an a short rendeetion o the Kalevala melody an a medley o three tradeetional Finnish fowk sangs.
In Juin 2006 the baund released thair live DVD, 10th Anniversary Live that haed been recordit in Nosturi, Helsinki on Hogmanay 2005.
The recordin o the third studio album, cried Victory Songs, teuk place atween November 2006 an early 2007. It wis released in Apryle 2007. A single cried One More Magic Potion wis released in Februar for tae promote the album, as wis the video for the album track Ahti.

In September 2007, langtyme keybuirist Meiju Enho quat the baund. Tho she haed taen mair o a role in the baund on the Victory Songs album, helpin wi the screivin o the sangs Ad Victorium an Raised By The Sword, she haed an aw taen a temporary leave o absence fer tae complete her studies, an decidit she wisnae able tae keep up her commitments tae the baund.




#Article 454: Korpiklaani (389 words)


Korpiklaani (Forest Clan in Finnish ) is a fowk metal baund frae Finland. They war stairtit in 1993 unner the name Shaman, but chynged tae Korpiklaani in 2002. The baund is tae the maist pairt a deeferent baund the nou, an maist fowk disna think o Shaman as bein the same thing, naither dae they coont Shaman's albums wi Korpiklaani's.

Shaman wis essentially the project o Jonne Järvelä, but efter twa albums, he decidit tae muive awa frae the soond o Shaman an gae for something wi mair braid acceptance. Sae he chynged the baund mair nor a tait - he stappit scrievin in the Sami leid an stairtit tae scrieve maist in Inglis but in Finnish an aw. The muisical style chynged an aw, tae the mair conventional fowk metal soond.
The baund haed monie line-up chynges in their early days, but haes aye been foondit aboot Järvelä, an it is aye him that scrieves maist o the sangs. 
Syne their first album, Spirit of the Forest (2003) they hae progressed muisically, but haes aye hauden their ain distinct soond an wi album nummer fower, Tervaskanto (2007), they hae muived on wi whit some haes cried their maist profeessional release tae date, the production beein a wheen clearer nor in their aulder albums. The baund's fift fou length release wes set furth in March 2008, it is cried Korven Kuningas (King o the Widds) an in the wurds o bassist Jarkko Aaltonen is a tribute tae tradeitional Finnish lummerjac cultur.

Unalike mony fowk metal baunds, Korpiklaani haes aye made fowk muisic the maist integral pairt o their sangs. The fiddlin o Jaakko Hittavainen Lemmetty aften taks a lead role in the sangs (e.g. in Pellonpekko on Spirit of the Forest), as duis the accordion playin o Juho JuhoKusti Kauppinen (e.g. his solo on the Tales Along This Road sang Väkirauta). Ither fowk instruments sic as jaw harp, kantele an flute is usid bi them forby.
Their muisic rynges frae pure fowk insturmentals an ballads tae the sae cried Trowe Metal o the sang Wooden Pints.
The soond o Korpiklaani deefers frae that o Shaman bi takkin in a hivier wecht frae metal an a hivier wecht frae Finnish fowk an aw. Mair oot ower, as merkit abuin, Korpiklaani scrieves their leerics in Inglis an Finnish raither nor Sami.




#Article 455: Týr (baund) (262 words)


Týr [tʊiːɹ] is a fowk metal baund frae the Faroe Islands. They tak their name frae the Norse god Týr, a god o war that wis wirshippit in the langsyne.

Týr wis stairtit in Januar 1998 whan Heri Joensen met up wi an auld baundmate o his, Kári Streymoy, at a pairty in Copenhagen, Denmark. Joensen sugeestit tae Streymoy that they shoud tryst for tae jam. Streymoy wisna sae keen at first, but later decidit tae dae it. They war suin jyned by anither auld baundmate o theirs, bassist Gunnar H. Thomsen, makkin thaim a trio. They decidit tae mak muisic that wis hivily inspired bi Norse meethologie, Faroese fowk muisic, Iron Maiden an Dream Theatre.
Ower the nine year o the baund's exeestance baundmates haes come an gane. Vocalist Pól Arni Holm an guitarist Jón Joensen (Heri's brither) wis pairt o the baund while they recordit How Far To Asgaard but quat the baund no lang efter it wis pitten oot.
Terji Skibenæs jyned the baund efter Jón Joensen haed quat. Allan Streymoy (Kári's brither), teuk ower the singin for a bit time while they recordit an set futh the single Ólavur Riddararós. Efter Allan quat Heri Joensen teuk ower the vocals. It wis this line-up that recordit Eric the Red.
Terji Skibenæs quat the baund for a bit time efer Eric the Red wis pitten oot. The baund pleyed as a trio for some time, but in the simmer o 2004 a guitarist frae Iceland cried Ottó P. Arnarson jyned for a wee while. Efter Ottó left, Terji cam back.




#Article 456: Holy Blood (302 words)


Holy Blood is a Christian Fowk metal baund frae Kiev in Ukraine.  They stairtit out in 1999 an haes set furth thrie albums syne than.

Holy Blood wis stairtit in 1999 bi Fedir Buzylevych (guitar an vocals), Myhailo Rodionov (bass guitar) an Dmytro Titorenko (drums). At the stairt their style wis bruital haurdcore, but suin chynged tae a mair hivy soondin deid/grind metal style. 
Efter eikin mair muisikers tae the line-up (Yevhen Tsesarev replacin Rodionov on bass, Oleksiy Furman jyned as lead guiarist an Vira Knyazeva wis eikit tae play keybuirds) their style chynged ance mair tae a mair melodic deid metal. Vira Knyazeva an Fedir Buzylevych wis mairiet in 2001.
It wis wi this line-up that the baund recordit their first album, cried The Wanderer in 2002.
Whan guitarist Oleksiy Furman quat the baund in 2002, he wis replaced bi Artem Stupak, an Buzylevych eikit the block flute tae the baund's soond. Wi thir chynges, the baund teuk a mair Fowk metal approach. They stairted scrievin wi a wheen mair fowk influences for their seicont album that wis cried Waves Are Dancing, released on the Christian Metal label Bombworks Records in 2004 (efter some mair line-up chynges).   

The fowk elements o Holy Blood's muisic is taen frae Ukranian fowk tradeetions an a tait Celtic muisic an aw. Flutes an bagpipes aften gies the sang its main fowk style melody wi black or deid metal guitars an drums gien the backin.
The metal elements is taen frae black metal an deid metal. Their vocals is for ordinar black metal style harsk vocals (baith hie an law pitched), but they uise a tait operatic female vocals an queirs in some o thier sangs an aw. They scrieve their sangs in the Ukrainian leid an aye scrieve anent their Christian faith, heiven, God etc.




#Article 457: Windir (246 words)


Windir (gaes ower intae Scots as Warrior) wis a Fowk metal/ Black metal baund frae Sogndal, Norawa. The baund jyned thegither black metal wi Norse fowk muisic an meethology. 
 

Windir stairtit oot in 1994, but didna set furth an album till 1997.
As is aften the case in Black metal, the baund wis essentially the project o the ae man, Terje Valfar Bakken that wrate the leerics an tukk owerins ower the baund's muisical airt.
Thay set furth fower albums in awmaist ten year o existence, ilkane mair muisically compticate an successfu nor the last, but a promisin career wis tragically cut scort in Januar 2004, whan Valfar dee'd o hypothermia whan he wis taigelt in a snaw storm whan he wis walkin in the hills o Sogndal tae his familie's hoose at Fagereggi. Efter his daith, the ither members o the baund held a tribute concert for tae mynd him, that wis filmed an setten furth on DVD.
Efter the baund spleet, three o the ither members stairtit a baund cried Vreid that conteenas wi a seemilar kynd o thocht tae Windir.

As wi awmaist aw Black metal baunds, Windir's leerics wis for ordinar anent hatred, iil etc. but thay wrate anent history as weel as Norse meethology an fowklair. The maist kenspeckle thing anent thair leerics is that thay war for the maist pairt in Sognamål, the auld-farrant byleid o thair region (tho maist o the leerics on the 1184 album wis in Inglis).




#Article 458: Austrick (209 words)


Austrick (German: Österreich, Czech: Rakousko, Slovenie: Avstrija; Croatie: Austrija; Serbie: Аустрија; Hungarian: Ausztria) is a laundlockit kintra in central Europe. It haes a laund mairch wi Germany an Czechie tae the north, Slovakie an Hungary tae the east, Slovenie an Italy tae the sooth, an Swisserland an Liechtenstein tae the wast. Austrick haes been a member-state o the EU sin 1995.

The fowk in Austrick speak German, a few speak Hungarian, Slovenie an Croatie. The caipital o Austrick is Vienna (Wien).

Austrick is mair nor a thoosand year auld. Its history can be follaed tae the nint century. At that time the first fowk muived tae the laund nou kent as Austrick. The name Ostarrichi is first scrieved in an offeecial document frae 996AD. Syne this wird haes developed intae the Modren German wird Österreich.

Austrick wis an empire frae aboot 800AD tae 1918, an wis ringit ower bi The Hoose o Habsburg for maist o that period. Than it becam a republic. The First Republic wis frae 1918 tae 1938, the Seicont Republic haes been frae 1945. Frae 1938 tae 1945 Austrick wis pairt o Germany. It wis annexed bi the Nazis an becam pairt o theThird Reich juist afore WWII. Efter the weir it syne becam unthirlt.




#Article 459: Elvenking (419 words)


Elvenking are a Fowk metal/ Pouer metal baund frae Italy.

Elvenking wis stairtit in October 1997 bi twa guitarist fieres, Aydan an Jarpen, that baith haed a passion for metal muisic an fowklair.  tho thay wis jyned afore lang bi Sargon as bassist, the new baund haed tae tak tent o monie issues wi line-up chynges that preventit thaim frae progressin.  In Mairch 1998, Damnagoras jyned the baund as lead sangster, an wis followit bi the cummin-in o drummer Zender in September.  It wis anlie then that baund foond sum kynd o stability.
Efter gettin a wheen o experience frae monie live shows, the baund decidit tae record an pit oot a promotional album, whilk wis cryed To Oak Woods Bestowed, in 2000.  Syne Sargon hus quat the baund bi this pynt, Damnagoras recordit the bass as weil as lead vocals on this demo.  The demo wis guid eneuch fer Elvenking tae sign a contrack wi German metal label AFM Records.
Suin efter this wis duin, Gorlan jyned the baund fou-tyme as bassist.
The baund's first album, Heathenreel wis recordit an pit oot in 2001 an teuk in a wheen o praise frae metal critics the yird ower.  Efter the album's release, in August 2002 sangster Damnagoras hud tae leave Elvenking fer heal reasons, sae the baund teuk in Kleid as sangster, wha brocht back tae the baund a mair fowk muisic soond.  Elyghen, wha plys violin an keybuirds jyned no lang efter.  
The new line-up jyned up wi a wheen o gest muisickers fer tae record the seicond album, cryed Wyrd in 2004.  The new line-up lastedna lang, syne Damnagoras cam back tae Elvenking  in late 2004; an the baund stairtit werk on whit wad becum thair third album, The Winter Wake, whilk wis the lasy album wi guitarist an foondin member Jarpen, wha left aroond a year afore the album wis releasit. 
Album nummer fower, The Scythe wes pit oot in September 2007 an is themed on daith.

It haes been staitit bi the baund that thair aim is fer tae mak a fusion o Pouer metal an fowk muisic.   As sic, thay are gey influenced bi ithir Poer metal baunds (especially o the European an Italian schuils) an an aa bi fowk an tradeetional muisic frae aw aroond the warld.  The influence o the Inglis Fowk metal baund Skyclad hes been notit.  Samples o material frae the new album hae shawn a mair muckle influence nor afore frae Thrash metal an a tait Deid metal forbye.




#Article 460: Finnish leid (988 words)


The Finnish leid (cryed suomi in Finnish) is the heidmaist leid that is spoken in Finland. It belangs the Finno-Ugrian curn. Finnish is sib tae Estonian, the ae near kin it haes is (Hungarian the ither main Finno-Ugrian leid, but syne the twa brainches wis sindert some twa thoosan year syne, thay arna gey seemilar at aw). The varieties o finnish ( Meänkieli an Kven ) in nortern swaden an norawa can be thir awn leids fir poleetical reasons.

Finnish developed frae the Finno-Ugric curn an bi the Middle Ages wis the leid spak bi maist Finns. Housome'er, syne Finland wis thirlt tae Swaden at the stairt o the Middle Ages, it haedna ony status in its ain kintra. Admeenistration wis aye cairiet oot in Swadish an aw releegious maiters wis in the Laitin. The law status o Finnish meant that it didna develop a scrieven form tilt the 16t century. Aw eddication, leetaratur etc. wis scrieven aither in Swadish or Laitin. As thare wisna a staundart scrieven form it wis gey fickle fir fowk tae learn it or tae uise it as a means o scrieven communication. Awtho it is true that mony leids wisna staundartised at this time, Finnish haed tae deal wi bein o sic a laich status an aw.

It teuk the wark o the Lutheran Bishop Mikael Agricola in his translation o The New Testament intae Finnish tae gie it a staundart form. Syne a central pynt o the Reformation wis the settin furth o the Bible in vernacular leids, Agricola wis keen tae gie the Finns the Screeptur in thair ain leid. His phonetic spellin seestem wisna haily conseestant, but it gied Finnish a framewark that the current seestem is taen frae.
Maugre the wark o Agricola, Finnish still haedna ony offeecial status at the stairt o the 19t century, as Swadish wis still uised in aw offeecial spheres, includin eddication. Housome'er, whan the Finnish naitional epic Kalevala wis setten furth in 1835, it raised a wheen o naitional speerit , includin the hankerin efter the upbiggin an promotion o the Finnish leid. As fowk becam mair determined tae uise Finnish, it grew an slawly becam the dominant leid in govrenment an eddication, achievin offeecial status in 1863. The strauchle tae gie a heize the Finnish leid frae its unco law status in the 19t Cntury is kent as the Finnish Leid Strauchle.

The day it is the maist uised leid in Finland (spoken bi 91.7% o the kintra), an alang wi Swadish is ane o the twa offeecial leids o that kintra.

Finnish uises a phonetic spellin seestem. Ilka soond is shawn bi ae letter an ilka letter is soondit.

Finnish haes 13 consonants - thay are soondit:

D lik the d in dae. It niver stairts a wird that is o Finnish oreegin, an it disna end them forby (e.g. taide, that means airt)

G anerly comes efter n. The ng is soondit as in lang ( sangen -gey)

H lik h in haver, but hairder (heti - at ance, Lahti - a Finnish clachan)

J lik y in yett (ja - an, kirja - beuk)

K lik k in ken (koira - dug)

L lik l in lang (talo - hoose)

M lik m in maun (huonompi - waur)

N lik n in nae, but afore g an k as in lang (niin - sae, sangen - gey)

P lik p in poke (lapsi - bairn)

R rowed as it is in Scots (raha - siller)

S lik s in sned (iso - muckle)

T lik t in tae (musta - black)

V lik v in vane (voi - butter)

B, C, F, Sh an ithers anerly hap in a tait o fremmit soorces, an is soondit mair or less as in the oreeginal. fir ordinar, but, Finns tends tae adapi wirds that's brocht in tae thair ain soond seestem

A lik a in Aibertay (asua - tae bide)

E lik e in ken (hevonen - cuddy)

I lik i in nip (ihminen - wicht)

O lik aw in waw (olla - tae be)

U lik u in buit(?) (hupsu - glaikit)

Y lik u in French entendu or the German ü. Gin ye shape yer mooth as gif tae say oo an syne ettle tae say the cutty i in nip ye'll no be faur wrang. (yksi - ane)

Ä lik a in hat (äkkiä - suddent)

Ö lik er in Erse (tyttö - lassie)

Ilka letter is soondit in Finnish, includin dooble consonants an dooble vouels.

kuka means wha; kukka means flouer (here the twa k soonds is a tait lik in tick coat).

katua means tae regret; kaatua means tae faw (here the dooble vouel maks the a soond langer)

muta (glaur), mutta (but, but can mean ither an aw), muuttaa (tae chynge).

The stress aye faws on the first seelable. Sae the caiptial ceety o Finland, Helsinki, in soondit Helsinki an no Helsinki as fremit fowk aften cries it. In compoond wirds (that Finnish haes mony o), the first seelable o ilka pairt taks the stress.

Finnish grammar is gey complicate an fickle tae learn. fir exemplar, it haes 15 cases, that's a wheen mair nor maist leids that fir ordinar haes aicht or fewer. Insteid o uisin preposeetions sic as tae, frae an in as maist leids daes, Finnish uises a wheen o suffixes fir tae shaw case. Thir is eikit til noons, pronoons, adjectives an infinitives, that thare is fower o.
It haes 15 equeevelant plural forms an aw, that micht need consonant or vouel chynges an aw!

Unlik the muckle feck o leids, Finnish haesna airticles o ony kynd, definite or indefinite. Sae the wird voileipä can mean a piece, the piece or juist piece, lippenin on the context.

Finnish haesna ony grammatical genders, an it disna mak ony disteenction atween he an she. The pronoon hän is uised fir the baith.




#Article 461: Manowar (742 words)


Manowar ar a hivy metal/pouer metal baund frae Auburn, New York in the Unitit States. They ar weil kent in the metal wurld fer scrievin leerics wi an emphasis on fantasy, meethologie an the metal sub-cultur, as weil as fer being ane o the maist influential baunds on the pouer metal scene. They are cryed efter the Man o' War, a kynd o warship uist in the 17t century.

Joey DeMaio wis warkin as a bass tech/ pyrotech fer Black Sabbath whan he met up wi a guitarist wha cryed himsel Ross the Boss (he wis in a baund kent as Shakin Street, wha wer supportin Sabbath at the tyme). They jammed thegithir an decidit tae form a baund, fer whilk they recruitit Eric Adams as singer an Donny Hamzik on the drums forbye. They warked tae mak an epic metal soond, a soond whilk foond its wie ontae their first album, Battle Hymns (1980) an haes bydit in their muisic evir syne. The debut album wisnae as metal as thet later wark, wi sum sangs on it haen a mair haird rock feel tae thaim, bot the baisic framewark wis in place, an the endin sang Battle Hymn is muisically an leerically teepical o the baund's ootpit in monie wies. On this album, Manowar became the ainlie baund tae record muisic wi Orson Welles, wha narratit the sang Dark Avenger (Welles wad cum bak tae Manowar fer tae record narratin on the Into Glory Ride album in 1982 an anithir sang cryed Defender whilk wis rewarked fer the Fighting the World album in 1987).
The baund wis jyned bi drummer Scott Columbus fer their seicond album, Into Glory Ride (1982). Their offeecial biography thrieps that his style o playin wis sae viscous that it wad cowp normal drum kits an sae special anes haed tae be made oot o steel fer him tae uise. This is teepical o monie o Manowar's thriepins (ithirs include that they signed their recorddin contrack in their ain bluid, that fowk hae dee'd at their shaws frae the volume etc. Naebodie kens whithir or no thir stories is true, bot they hae helped tae big the image o Manowar).
Ane o Manowar's thriepins whilk can be supportit is the title o Wurld's Loodest Baund, a raicord they hauld an hae broken thrie tymes. The Guinness Book of World Records haulds that they ance played at 160 decibels, whilk is as lood as a jet engyne!
Custom soond graith wis bigged fer the baund bi John Dawk Stillwell, whilk helpit thaim tae achieve their gey muckle soond.
Ower the years, Manowar's soon haesna chynged a wheen, tho it haes been notit bi monie fans an critics that on recent albums the elements o clessical muisic (orchestras, quiers, symphonic interludes etc.) are becummin mair important at the expense o the strauchtforrit metal sangs whilk made the baund their name.

Manowar wer weil kent in the 1980s fer their leither an furs image whilk they teuk on tae match the epic, battle relatit themes o their leerics. This lead tae album kivers sic as  , whilk hae fer obvious reisons become a tairget o fun amang metal fans the day, espeecialy on internet forums an sic like. Nou the baund ar aulder an dinnae wear sic claes as in the auchties, bot still keep tae leither, motorcycles an lang hair in a mair teepical (an less obviously camp) metal style.

Accordin tae the baund's , Manowar foond a wheen o tift frae the wark o famous clessical componer Richard Wagner, wha bassist DeMaio thrieps wis The faither o heavy metal. Forbye the baund also tak muisical tift frae clessic metal baunds sic as Black Sabbath (Manowar wad sumtymes thriep in eirlie interviews that forbye thaimsels, Sabbath war the ainlie true metal baund aroond). 
Leericaly they tak tift frae fantasy novels an buiks, sic as Conan the Barbarian an sic like.

Fer tae tak mair control o their muisic, recordin, distribuitin, merchandise etc. DeMaio foondit a raicord label cryed Magic Circle Music in 2002. The main reison fer this, accordin tae singer Eric Adams, wis acause o unfair treatment o the baund bi raicord labels in the past, and tae prevent ithir baunds frae dreein the same; as weil as tae ensure the maist hie quality o production. Ithir acks on the label include Rhapsody of Fire, Holy Hell an the solo wark o Rhapsody of Fire guitarist Luca Turilli. 




#Article 462: Franklin Delano Roosevelt (839 words)


Franklin Delano Roosevelt (, ; 30 Januar 1882 – 12 Apryle 1945), eften referred tae by his ineetials FDR, wis an American statesman an political leader that served as the 32nt Preses o the Unitit States frae 1933 till his daith in 1945. A Democrat, he wan a record fower presidential elections an becam a central feegur in warld events in the first hauf o the 20t century. Roosevelt directit the federal govrenment in maist o the Great Depression, implementin his New Deal domestic agenda in response tae the worst economic creesis in U.S. history. As a dominant leader o his pairty, he biggit the New Deal Coaleetion, that realigned American politics intae the Fift Pairty Seestem an defined American leeberalism ootthrou the middle third o the 20t century. His third an fowert terms war dominatit bi Warld War II. He is eften ratit bi scholarts as ane o the three greatest U.S. preses, alang wi George Washington an Abraham Lincoln.

Roosevelt wis born in Hyde Park, New York, tae a Dutch American faimily made weel kent bi Theodore Roosevelt, the 26t Preses o the Unitit States. FDR attendit Groton School, Harvard College, an Columbia Law School, an went on tae practice law in New York Ceety. In 1905, he mairied his fift cuisin ance remuived, Eleanor Roosevelt. Thay haes sax childer. He wan election tae the New York State Senate in 1910, an then served as Assistant Secretar o the Navy unner Preses Woodrow Wilson in Warld War I. Roosevelt wis James M. Cox's rinnin mate on the Democratic Pairty's 1920 naitional ticket, but Cox wis defeatit bi Warren G. Harding. In 1921, Roosevelt contractit a paralytic illness, believed at the time tae be polio, an his legs becam permanently paralysed. While attemptin tae rekier frae his condition, Roosevelt foondit the treatment centre in Warm Springs, Georgie, for fowk wi polio. In spite o bein unable tae walk unaidit, Roosevelt returned tae public office bi winnin election as Govrenor o New York in 1928. He wis in office frae 1929 tae 1933 an served as a reform Govrenor, promotin programmes tae combat the economic creesis besettin the Unitit States at the time.

In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeatit Republican Preses Herbert Hoover in a laundslide. Roosevelt teuk office while the Unitit States wis in the mid o the Great Depression, the worst economic crisis in the kintra's history. In the first 100 days o the 73rd Unitit States Congress, Roosevelt speirheidit unprecedentit federal legislation an issued a profusion o executive orders that institutit the New Deal—a variety o programmes designed tae produce relief, rekivery, an reform. He creatit numerous programmes tae provide relief tae the unemployed an fermers while seekin economic rekivery wi the National Recovery Administration an ither programmes. He an aw institutit major regulatory reforms relatit tae finance, communications, an labour, an presidit ower the end o Prohibeetion. The economy haein improved rapidly frae 1933 tae 1936, Roosevelt wan a laundslide reelection in 1936. Houiver, the economy then relapsed intae a deep recession in 1937 an 1938. Efter the 1936 election, Roosevelt socht passage o the Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937 (the coort packin plan), that wad hae expandit the size o the Supreme Coort o the Unitit States. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented passage o the bill an blocked the implementation o forder New Deal programmes an reforms. Major survivin programmes an legislation implementit unner Roosevelt include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the National Labor Relations Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, an Social Security.

Roosevelt ran successfully for reelection in 1940. His veectory made him the anerly U.S. Preses tae serve for mair nor ta terms. Wi Warld War II loomin efter 1938, Roosevelt gae strang diplomatic an financial support tae China as weel as the Unitit Kinrick an the Soviet Union while the U.S. remeened offeecially neutral. Follaein the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, an event he famously cried a date which will live in infamy, Roosevelt obteened a declaration o war on Japan the next day, an a few days later, on Germany an Italy. Assistit bi his tap aide Harry Hopkins an wi verra strang naitional support, he wirked closely wi Breetish Prime Meenister Winston Churchill, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin an Cheenese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in leadin the Allies against the Axis Pouers. Roosevelt supervised the mobilisation o the U.S. economy tae support the war effort an implementit a Europe first strategy, makkin the defeat o Germany a priority ower that o Japan. He an aw ineetiatit the development o the warld's first atomic bomb an wirkit wi the ither Allied leaders tae lay the grundwark for the Unitit Naitions an ither post-war institutions. Roosevelt wan reelection in 1944 but wi his pheesical heal declinin in the war years, he dee'd in Apryle 1945, juist  weeks intae his fowert term. The Axis Pouers surrendered tae the Allies in the months follaein Roosevelt's daith, in the presidency o Roosevelt's successor, Harry S. Truman.




#Article 463: Beer (429 words)


Beer is an alcoholic drink brewed frae maut, hops an baurley. Beer is the warld's auldest an maist widely consumed alcoholic drink; it is the third maist popular drink oweraw, efter watter an tea. The production o beer, brewin involves the baurmin o siccars, mainly derived frae cereal grain stairches—maist commonly frae mautit baurley, awtho wheat, maize, an rice are widely uised. Most beer is flavoured wi hops, that add bitterness an act as a naitural preservative, tho ither flavourins sic as yerbs or fruit mey occasionally be includit. The baurmin process causes a naitural carbonation effect, awtho this is eften remuived during processin, an replaced wi forced carbonation. Some o humanity's earliest kent writins refer tae the production an distribution o beer: the Code o Hammurabi includit laws regulatin beer an beer parlours, an The Hime tae Ninkasi, a prayer tae the Mesopotamian goddess o beer, served as baith a prayer an as a method o rememberin the recipe for beer in a cultur wi few leeterate fowk.

Beer is sauld in bottles an cans; it mey an aa be available on draucht, pairteecularly in pubs an baurs. The brewin industrie is a global business, conseestin o several dominant multinaitional companies an mony thoosands o smawer producers rangin frae brewpubs tae regional breweries. The strenth o beer is uisually aroond 4% tae 6% alcohol bi vollum (abv), awtho it mey vary atween 0.5% an 20%, wi some breweries creautin ensaumples o 40% abv an abuin. Beer forms pairt o the cultur o beer-drinkin naitions an is associatit wi social tradeetions sic as beer festivals, as well as a rich pub cultur involvin activities lik pub crawlin, an pub gemmes sic as bar billiards.

In Canadae, the Canadian Govrenment’s Fuid an Drog Regulations states that beer shoud hae alcohol content that ranges frae 1.1% tae 8.6%. The regulation an aa includes that it coud be greater nor 8.6% an labeled accordinly. 

Beer in Sooth Korea shoud hae 25% (v/v) or less. That means that it haes tae be 25 mL o alcohol or less  per 100 mL o solution an  can anerly be conseedert ‘lite’ if thay hae less nor 30 kcal per 100ml. Mair specifically, major ingredients sic as Maut (baurley an wheat), Hop, Watter, Stairch ingredients hae tae be allaed bi the Sooth Korean Regulations in the brewin process.

Beers an ither seemilar variations in Singapore maun hae at meenimum o 1.0% alcohol (v/v) concentration at 20°C. It is eften brewed frae a mixtur o grains lik maut, succars or it's equivalent an hops or ither vegetables.




#Article 464: Mecca (229 words)


Mecca (), forby spelt Makkah (occasionally Bakkah) (; Arabic:مكة Makkah an in fou: Arabic:مكّة المكرمة transliteratit Makkah Al Mukarramah ) is a ceety in Saudi Arabie, an the haliest meetin site in Islam, closely follaed bi Medina.

Islamic tradeetion attributes the beginnin o Mecca tae Ishmael's descendants. In the 7t century, the Islamic prophet Muhammad proclaimed Islam in the ceety whilk wis bi then an important tred center. Efter 966, Mecca wis led bi local sharifs. Whan the owerins o the Ottoman Empire in the aurie foondert in 1916, the local rulers establisht the Hashemite Kinrick o Hejaz.  The Hejaz kinrick, includin Mecca, wis absorbit bi the Saudis in 1925. In its modren period, Mecca haes seen tremendous waxin in size an infrastructure.

The modren day ceety is the caipital o Saudi Arabie's Makkah Province, in the historic Hejaz region. Wi a population o 1.7 million (2008), the ceety is locatit 73 km (45 mi) inland frae Jeddah in a narra glen at a hicht o 277 m (909 ft) abuin sea level.

Ivery year, millions o Muslims perform the Hajj pilgrimage tae Mecca walkin seiven times aroond the Kaaba an mair nor 13 million fowk veisit Mecca annually.

Mecca is the oreeginal Inglis transliteration o the Arabic an is still maist commonly uised in Inglish dictionaries,  bi internaitional organisations in thair Inglis leid literature an in academic writin.




#Article 465: Rhapsody of Fire (423 words)


Rhapsody of Fire (aforesyne kent as Thundercross an, mair recent as Rhapsody) is a Symphonic pouer metal baund frae Italy.

Rhapsody of Fire pit oot their debut album, Legendary Tales unner the name o Rhapsody.  Co-foonders and componers Luca Turilli an Alex Staropoli creatit an epic soond wi this album, that jyned thegither clessical muisic wi pouer metal.  Legendary Tales wis the first in a cycle o albums cried the Emrald Sword Saga that telt a story o hie fantasy based natur, scrieven bi the baund's leeracist, guitarist Luca Turilli.
Ilka album frae Legendary Tales tae Power of the Dragonflame (2002) wis pairt o this Saga an developed the tale, whiles the albums onwarts frae Symphony of Enchanted Lands II: The Dark Secret (2004) is pairt o a seicont saga.  This wis the first album tae featur Alex Holzwarth on drums, tho he haed drummed for them on tours afore this.  Afore him, drums on the baund's albums wis creedit tae Thunderforce that some jaloused wis a drum machine, but wis in fact a drummer that coudna be named for contract relatit raisons.  This album featurt the wark o warld famous actor Christopher Lee narratin an singin backup tae singer Fabio Lione on the sang The Magic of the Wizard's Dream that wis recordit in fower deeferant leids (Inglis, German, Italian an French).  Their maist recent album, Triumph or Agony is the seicont album in the new saga, an shaws a progression tae mair clessical muisic bein incorporatit intae the baund's soond. 

Due tae trademerk issues, the baund wis forced tae chynge their name frae Rhapsody tae Rhapsody of Fire efter nine year an sieven albums.  The baund made the best o the chynge, keybuirdist Alex Staropoli threapin: The name Rhapsody of Fire better represents the energy that haes aye been forrit in this baund an its muisic.

Rhapsody is kenspeckle amang pouer metal fans for the wheen o clessical muisic that they eik tae their metal.  They jyne thegither the grandiose style o baroque muisic an melodic, aften fast an technically demaundin pouer metal.  They threap tift frae componers sic as Johann Sebastian Bach, Antonio Vivaldi, Niccolò Paganini as weel as metal acts sic as Manowar, Van Halen an Yngwie Malmsteem.
In the bygane, the baund haes uised fowk instruments sic as flute, but no tae the extent that onybody wad cry thaim a fowk metal baund.
Leericaly, the baund aften refers tae meethical lair frae the Middle ages, an aften centres on the heroic vailies aften portrayed as haen existit langsyne.




#Article 466: DragonForce (535 words)


DragonForce ar an Inglis pouer metal baund frae Ingland. They ar kent for their twin guitar solos, speed an epic vocals an leerics.

DragonForce wis stairtit in 1999 bi guitarists Herman Li an Sam Totman that played thegithir in a black metal baund cried Demoniac (an some ither extreme metal baunds) unner the name DragonHeart. Efter recruitin singer ZP Theart as weel as ither muisickers tae complete the baund, they pit oot a five sang demo cried Valley of the Damned in 2000 that wis at the tap o MP3.com's pouer metal chairt for mair nor twa year; wi the title sang bein dounlaid mair nor hauf a million times in the first few month. Shortl syne, twa o the oreegional members, Steve Williams an Steve Scott quat the baund tae form anither pouer metal act cried Power Quest. Efter the demo wis released, the baund haed tae chynge their name tae DragonForce, syne there wis awready a baund cried Dragonheart frae Brazil. The success o the demo managed tae win the baund a slot supportin Rob Halford on ane his UK tours.
Efter being pickit up bi Sanctuary Records, they pit oot their debut album, Valley of the Damned in 2003, tae a wheen o creetical aclaim. Tourin awmaist wioot stoppin in support o baunds sic as Helloween an W.A.S.P as weel as heidlinin their ain shaws they teuk the album roond the warld an won ower a legion o new fans.

Their 2004 album Sonic Firestorm came wi a deeferant line-up as Adrian Lambert jynt on bass for tae replace Diccon Harper an Dave Mackintosh wis taen on as drummer for tae replace Didier Almouzni. The album haed mair better production nor Valley of the Damned an saw the baund growe in popularity ance mair as they toured the warld in support o the new record, wi support frae Angra an Mendeed. Sonic Firestorm is in muckle the same style as Valley of the Damned, but some o the scrievin is mair progressive, especially the sang Soldiers of the Wasteland .

In 2005, juist afore the tourin for Sonic Firestorm haed endit, Adrian Lambert quat the baund for tae spend mair time wi his young son (tho he later revealed in an interview that he haed quat due tae muisical deeferences wi Totman an Li) an wis replaced bi Frédéric Leclercq, a lang time freend o Li, wha wis made a permanent member o the baund efter the tour haed endit. 
No lang efter that, DragonForce jynt Roadrunner Records in the Unitit Kinrick, Fraunce, Australia an New Zealand, wha pit oot their third an tae date maist commercially successfu album, Inhuman Rampage in Januar 2006. 

Efter gaun aboot the yird three times for tae promote that album, the baund will tour ance mair wi Trivium, Arch Enemy an Machine Head in the Black Crusade Tour afore remixin their debut album, Valley of the Damned for re-release an efter that gang tae the studios ance mair for the recordin o album number fower.

 
Tho the baund taks their muisicianship sairious, they dinna tak their fantasy relatit leerical themes as close tae hert as some ither baunds sic as Manowar or Rhapsody of Fire daes.




#Article 467: Joey Barton (108 words)


Joey Barton (born 2 September, 1982) is a fitbaa player that hails frae Ingland, but is o Irish ancestry. He played his gemme wi Newcastle Unitit F.C. amang ither clubs. 

Efter the Warld Cup in 2006, Barton suggyresded Steven Gerrard and Frank Lampard cashed in on Ingland's puir performance by settin furth beuks aboot it. He said Ingland did naething in that warld cup, sae why are thay bringin beuks oot? 'We gat beat in the quarter-feenals, a played like shite, here's ma beuk' Who wants tae read that? A daen't.

Barton haes been in tribble wi the polis efter a fecht wi Ousmane Dabo in Apryle 2007.




#Article 468: HammerFall (1157 words)


HammerFall are a Swadish heavy metal/pouer metal baund frae Gothenburg, Swaden.

HammerFall's storie stairts in 1993, whan guitarist Oscar Dronjak quat daith metal baund Ceremonial Oath an speired Jesper Strömblad, the drummer frae In Flames (wha wis an umwhile member o Ceremonial Oath) tae jyn wi him on a new muisical projeck whilk he haed been ettlin tae dae fer sum time. Syne baith the main members o HammerFall wer in ithir baunds whilk thay teuk mair seriouslie nor HammerFall at the tyme ( Crystal Age fer Dronjak an In Flames fer Strömblad) the baund wis mair or less pit on the bak burner an wis really a side projeck fer aw involvit. This chynged in 1996 whan the baund won tae the semi-finals o a local muisic competeetion cryed Rockslaget. Lilter Mikael Stanne wisnae able tae perform, sae wi the help o sum freins, thay teuk in Joacim Cans, wha sang wi thaim that nicht. Tho thay didnae mak it tae the finals, the shaw wis a success fer HammerFall, wha teuk Cans in as a fou time abund member an stairted tae tak thair prospecks mair seriouslie.

Thay signed tae Vic Records, a record label frae the Netherlands, in 1996, an the neist year pit oot thair first album, Glory to the Brave whilk haes been seen bi monie as the aizle fer the mid/late 90s pouer metal reawaukenin. The gleg-shair feedbak the album wis gettin in the Netherlands drew the attention o muckle German metal label Nuclear Blast wha pit Glory to the Brave oot aw ower Europe, tae a wheen o success, includin sellin mair nor a hunner thoosan copies, a tap fowerty spot in the German chairts in its first week (whilk haed no been duin bi a metal baund afore) an a nomination fer a Swedish Grammy. Thay played at Wacken Open Air, the mucklemaist metal festival in the wurld.

The baund went throu a wheen o line-up chynges efter the album wis pittin oot. Strömblad quat the baund an wis replacit bi Patrik Räfling, guitarist Glenn Ljungström left an wis replacit bi Stefan Elmgen (wha haed appeared on Glory to the Brave as a gest muisicker), an bass player Fredrik Larsson wis replacit bi Magnus Rosén.

Wi the neu line-up reidy an new sangs screivin (wi the help o Jesper Strömblad; even tho he haed left the baund he helped wi writin), HammerFall set tae recordin thair seicont album, cryed Legacy of Kings in 1998. The album teuk ane an a hauf month tae record, an wis much the same vein as Glory to the Brave leericaly, tho muisically is wis less influenced bi thrash metal an wis better produced.

Efter the album wis pittin oot, HammerFall stairtit oot on thair first wurld tour. Wanachanclike, lilter Joacim Cans teuk a gey bad smit tae his thrapple, meanin he cuid liltna ava. No lang efter, Magnus Rosén wis struik doun wi the same pest, an efter him the haill o the baund’s roadcrew wer taen ill wi it an aw. The baund played on fer as lang as possible, bot haed tae aff-pit the tour an sum shaws wer cryed aff awthegither. Efter the tour haed endit, drummer Patrik Räfling quat the baund an wis replacit bi Anders Johansson, a frien o Magnus Rosén.

Efter the lang tour tae support Legacy of Kings wis ower, the baund went bak tae Swaden tae spend time wi thair families an stairt scrievin sangs fer the neist record. The album, cryed Renegade soonded deeferent tae the twa bygane albums, mainly acause it wis producit bi Michael Wagener. The wale o Wagener wisnae liked muckle bi the muisic press fer ordinar, tho efter the album wis pit oot in 2000, maist creetics war positive anent it. The album an its single (cryed Renegade) tappit the Swadish chairts; the album wis certified tae hae reached gowd status.

Almaist saxtie shaws wer played in the baund’s seicond warld tour, whilk featurt a ruckled castle as a stage set. Efter the tour wis ower, the baund pit oot a DVD cryed The Templar Renegade Crusades whilk includit live fitage, bakstage at shaws an recordin sessions frae the time o Legacy of Kings bein recordit up tae the gowd album pairty fer Renegade in November 2001.

Album nummer fower, Crimson Thunder pit oot in 2002, kept verra much wi the HammerFall template, tho maist fans an creetics see it as bein mair better nor Renegade. Its single, Hearts on Fire bydit at the tap o the chairts o several European kintras fer sum weeks, tho the shootin o the promotional video wis hauden bak fer a week efter Cans wis glessed in a nichtclub

The tour tae support the album wis a success, despite sum unchancies that teuk place. Efter the North Americaen leg o the tour, the baund’s mainager saunted wi aw the siller frae the tour. Later on Oscar Dronjak wis in a motorcylce wanachance, brakin his left airm, meanin he wis unable tae play an the tour haed tae be pit-aff. Despite this the baund pit oot a live album an DVD frae the tour cryed One Crimson Night, recordtit in Gothenburg.

Efter a brak o twa year, the baund pit oot Chapter V: Unbent, Unbowed, Unbroken, whilk wis followit bi a European an Sooth Americaen tour. Fer ordinar, the album winsae recieved weil my maist creetics, wha saw in it ainlie a tait innovation, tho fer aw that it wisnae dinged bi thaim aither; maist saw it as average. The album featurt a gest appearance bi Cronos, lilter o Venom, ane o the first black metal baunds.

The wis a rumour at the time o this album that HammerFall wad be playin in the Eurovision Sang Contest, tho this wis refutit bi the baund an nevir came tae be.

The baund’s maist recent album, Threshold wis pit oot in October 2006 an gaed intae nummer ane o the Swadish chairts. The tour fer this album featurt the baund’s first shaw in Scotland.
Efter the tour wis ower, lang staundin bassist Magnus Rosén lat it be kent that he wis quattin HammerFall tae focus on his ithir projecks. The reason fer this wis that he haed grawn sair tired o the semple bass playin he haed tae dae in HammerFall, which he jaloused wis albow his skeels, an didnae allou him tae be as creative as he wantit. No lang efter it wis lat kent that his replacement wis tae be Fredrik Larsson, wha played bass on the Glory to the Brave album.
 

HammerFall hae announcit that a “Best O” compilation will be pittin oot in October 2007 tae merk the tent year o the baund as a recordin curn. It will hae aroond 25 sangs, includin three neu recordins (ane o whilk is a re-recordin o the sang HammerFall frae the first album). The record will be cryed Steel Meets Steel- Ten Years of Glory.




#Article 469: Oor Wullie (694 words)


Oor Wullie is a chairacter in a cairtoon in the Sunday Post by Peter Davidson the now. He's a wee laddie that sits oan a bucket, wi a wee dug cried Harry. Oor Wullie's wee moose is cried Jeemy. He his a Maw an Paw an uses his cattie tae knack P.C. Murdochs hat aff (cap duntin').  He is a'ways findin' himsel in trouble wi' the law as acause o' this.

Oor Wullie doesnae ken if he is interested in a lassie named Primrose Patterson; she is his sometime girlfriend the noo.  He haes three pals that's cried Fat Bob, Soapy Soutar, an Wee Eck. At the stairt an end o ilka cairtoon he can be fand sittin oan his bucket that he haes a sentimental attachment tae.  The start o' each cairtoon also features a rhyme also in Scots. The cairtoons is written in Englified Scots.

Oor Wullie annuals is setten furth ilka twa year an The Broons (a sib comic cairtoon) annuals is setten furth in the years whan Oor Wullie isna setten furth, whiles thare's the antrin crossower atween the twa comic strips.

Tho Wullie's hame toon wisnae gien a name in the oreeginal Watkins cairtoon, its ay been called Auchenshoogle syne the 1990s.

Wullie and his pals gie aboot the streets o his toon, tho he is bytimes seen at the schuil that he disnae like. He disnae like his dominae wha cries him William and gies him a reidie.

His adventures often consist o unrealistic get-rich-quick schemes that lead to mischief, to the despair o his parents Ma and Pa (Wullie's Pa is called “Tam”, the only reference to this is in a cairtoon from the sixties during a conversation atween Pa and PC Murdoch) and local policeman P.C. Joe Murdoch. Wullie's pals consists o hissel, Fat Boab, Wee Eck, 'Soapy' Soutar and Primrose Paterson (a lassie wha likes Wullie). Wullie cries hissel the highheidyin o the gang, but the ithers dinnae agree.

Uised tae be the gang wid meet in a wuid shed in the gairden at Wullie's hoose. Efter, the gang wid meet in an auld caravan cried the Holly Rude. He uised tae hae anither pal cried Ezzy, who disnae appear in strips nouadays, alang wi with Wullie's wee brither.

Wullie's age hisnae aye bin the same. Afore in the Watkins cairtoons he luiked aboot 5 or 6, but later Watkins cairtoons he luiked aboot 10 or 11. Mair recently he his becam a bit yunger agin.

Fae 1940 the Oor Wullie  cairtoons his appeart in a Christmas annual, set furth ivery twa year, chyngin wi The Broons, anither D. C. Thomson cairtoon. (Nae annuals wir set-furth atween 1943 and 1946 acause o paper shortcomins in the War.) Syne 2015, baith cairtoon annuals ir set-futher ivery year.

Early cairtoons is aften repeatit in anes set-furth nouadays too.

Fur tae celebrate Oor Wullie's 80t anniversarie in 2016, thare wis a major public airt project whur 55 decoratit 5 ft sculptures o Wullie wis putit aroond Dundee and its pairts wi anither 13 tourin aboot Scotland ower eight week. As weel, 29 smawer anes wur designt by schuil weans in Dundee as pairt o an eddication programme aboot the Trail. Each ane is different, likes o Oor Bowie designt efter David Bowie, or ane fur Tim Peake whit luiks like a space man. A nummer o weel kent airtists made designs, likes o John Lowrie Morrison (Jolomo), whas  “Oor Jolomo” includit a nummer o his classic depictions o “red roofed cottages” oan his dongarees.

The Bucket Trail wis the lairgest mass public art project tae hae happent in Scotland. It went fae 17 June for twa month, an the sculptures wis uctiont aff in September 2016 fur £883,000. The money wis gied tae Archie Foundation's appeal fur tae gie money fur a new surgical suite fur childer at Tayside Children's Hospital. Thare wis money veesitors tae Dundee fun tae see the Trail. Afore the uction, a fareweel event wis put oan in Dundee's Slessor Gardens an 95 Oor Wullie statues wis oan public display. Ower 12,000 tickets wis selt. In aw, aboot 20,000 fowk cam tae the event.




#Article 470: Pakistan (432 words)


Pakistan (officially The Islamic Republic o Pakistan, and the Urdu is the main and national language of the country) is a situated in South Asia connected with India, the China, Afghanistan an Iran through the borders. Pakistan has an estimated 156,770,000 individuals.

Pakistan was whiles part of the British Empire but became independent in 1947 on 14th August, along with India. After than it had an existence  as a independent state, tho fowk haes bid thare syne the seventeen year thousand BC. Ane o the world's oldest cities, Moenjo-Daro, wis in Pakistan.

In 1947, after many years of campaigning, Pakistan and India war unthirlt frae Breetain. Pakistan wis creatit as the kintra for the Muslims, an Indae for the Hindus. This o coorse left the problem o whaur the Christians, Jews, Buddhists etc. wis tae bide, an thair places in the twa kintras haes been a problem tae the day. The kintra that's cried Bangladesh the nou wis whiles pairt o Pakistan (cried East Pakistan) til it became independent in 1971.

The heidmaist leid o Pakistan is Urdu. Anerly aboot 10% o Pakistani's haes it as thair mither tongue, but it haes acome Pakistan's lingua franca an aw edicate Pakistanis haes it fluent. The ae ither naitional offeecial leid is English, but ilkane o the provinces haes offeecial leids forby thon, sic as Punjabi, Pushtu, Sindhi an sae on. Punjabi haes the maist native speakers, aboot 44% o the kintra's indwallers.

Mair nor aichty leids an byleids is spak in Pakistan. Some is spak bi gey few fowk, sic as Aer thatin 1998 haed anerly 100-200 speakers, while maist haes a wheen mair.

Maist Pakistanis haes at least twa leids, an ken o fower or mair isna byordinar.

Pakistan was first as a state for the Muslim state of the Indian sub-continent, it isna supreesin that the feck o fowk in Pakistan (96%) is Muslims, (spleet atween awmaist 77% Sunni an 20% Shi'a). The lave is Muslims Christian, Jewish, Buddhism an a taut is Anamist, maistly o the Kalash fowk in the Nor' o the kintra.

Anerly 53%  o Pakistan's indwallers is leeterate. Eddication stairts at the eild o five, tho mony stairtna schuil ava. Thare is, forby state schuils, Islamic schuils cried madrassas in Pakistan that haes been creeticised for upbiggin fundamentalist Islamic support in the kintra, an as an affcome biggin up support for terrorism. Aboot 7.5% o childer in the Nor' Wast Frontier Province is jaloused tae be eddicatit in madrassas.

Thare's modren varsities in Pakistan, as weel as mony airmy colleges that offers trainin for offishers an siclike.




#Article 471: Finno-Ugrian (187 words)


Finno-Ugrian is the name that is gien tae the curn o lieds sic as Finnish, Hungarian, Estonian, the Sami leids an a twa-three lesser kent leids o Roushie. Tho the leids hae been sindert for monie hunner years, they hae some featurs in common yet.

The mucklemaist sinderin in the curn wis that atween Finnish an Hungarian, jaloused bi maist linguists tae hae taen place aroond sax thoosan year syne. The twa leids hae syne gaed their ain gates, but still hae a puckle featurs that merk them oot as relatit. Maist scholars also jalouse that the airt nou cryed Finland haes haed indwallers wi a Finno-Ugrian leid syne 3000 BC, that, ower the thoosan years, haes taen wecht frae the niebourin Indo-European leids, baith Germanic an Slavic. As the leids hae grown, they hae taen nae juist words frae ither leids, but grammatical featurs forbye. Houaniver, the curn aye haes featurs o its ain.

The curn haes its ain featurs that merks its leids oot as relatit, baith in its lexis an its grammar. Amang them:

 - Virtual Finland page anent the leids o the curn.




#Article 472: Charles, Prince o Wales (222 words)


Charles, Prince o Wales (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948 in Lunnon), is teetelt in the United Kinrick 'The Prince o Wales, Duke o Cornwall an Yerl o Chester, Duke o Rothesay, Yerl o Carrick, Baron Renfrew an Laird o the Isles, Prince an Great Stewart o Scotland, Knicht o the Gairter an Knicht o the Thristle'.

For ordinar in Ingland, Wales an Northren Ireland he is kent as the 'Prince o Wales' whiles in Scotland he is kent as the 'Duke o Rothesay' an in Cornwall the 'Duke o Cornwall'.

He wis a sailor in the Ryal Navy an is nou a fou Admiral.  In a siclike mainer he wis listit as a sodger an nou is a fou General in the Breetish Airmy.  He is the Ryal Colonel o the The Black Watch, 3rd Battalion The Ryal Regiment o Scotland an the 51st Hieland, 7t Battalion The Ryal Regiment o Scotland.  He wis listit as a pilot in the Ryal Air Force an is nou a fou Air Chief Marshal.

Whane'er he is in Scotland he bides aither at Birkhall, Balmoral, Aiberdeenshire or the Pailace o Halyruidhoose in Edinburgh.

He wis the Heich Commissioner o the Kirk o Scotland in 2000.

The Duke o Rothesay is Heir Appearent tae Her Grace Queen Elizabeth II o the Unitit Kinrick.




#Article 473: Daith metal (565 words)


Daith Metal is a kynd o hivy metal muisic that stairtit as an affshuit o thrash metal in 1980s.

There's a nummer o common theories for hou the genre teuk its name. The first is that it cam frae the sang Death Metal bi Possessed that wis on their Seven Churches album in 1985 (an album aften hauden tae be the first album in the genre, predatin the wark o baith Morbid Angel an Death. The seicont is that is wis taen frae a sang o the same name later that year bi thrash metal baund Onslaught. Mair ootower in 1985, genre peeoneers Death pit oot a demo cried Death by Metal. Anither theory is that the genre teuk its name frae the name o the baund Death syne their Scream Bloody Gore made Death Metal mair recognised in the metal warld, an that they war sae associatit wi the genre that they gien it the name. The late Thomas Quothorn Forsberg o black metal baund Bathory threapit that he haed cleckit the term as lang syne as 1984, tho his baund wis niver Daith Metal ava.

It aiblins possible, tho no likely, that the 1984 compilation album Death Metal gien the genre its name.

Daith Metal stairtit out in Americae in the aichties as an affshuit o thrash metal. Thrie albums frae atween 1985 an 1987 wis responsible for the bringin oot o Daith Metal frae the ranks o thrash metal. Thir is Seven Churches bi Possessed (1985), Reign in Blood bi Slayer (mair o a thrash metal album, but aye gey influential on the Daith Metal scene) (1986) an the mair definitive Scream Bloody Gore bi Death (1987). As the scene skailt, it teuk on deeferent chairacteristics - in Swaden it becam mair technical, for exemplar. It is aften said that the scene stagnatit in the mid -late 90's (exceptin the sae cried Gothernburg Boom o the late 90's), but in the 2000s the re-kythin o mony aulder baunds as weel as the popularity o baunds sic as Children of Bodom an Nile haes seen tae it that Daith Metal isna gaun tae dee ony time suin, an seems tae be outlastin the thrash metal that it cam frae in terms o innovatin an (ironically) vivacity.

Daith Metal is for ordinar lood, fast an gey intense. Dountuined guitars, gey laich harsk vocals (whiles cried Cookie Monster Vocals bi baith fans an detractors) an fast drummin is staundart. The muisic is aften gey haird tae play, wi time chynges, key chynges an sang structurs bein mair complicatit nor in mony genres, as weel as the drummin an guitar wark takkin a wheen o skeel tae play. The muckle feck o deid metal drummers uises twa bass drums or a double kick pedal. The staundart line-up for Daith Metal baunds is vocals; lead guitar; rhythm guitar; bass guitar; drums - but keybuirds an e'en saxophones is uised forby.

Degrees o technical skeel varies frae baund tae baund an sub genre tae sub genre - the kynd kent as tech deid is clairly gey skeelie, while ither kynds is mair semple tae play.

Leerically, themes reenges frae meesticism tae Satanasim; deid tae meetholigy; nihilism tae politics. Whit wey the genre cam tae be associatit wi dait isna certain; but fechtin, gore an daith is staundart leerical themes aften tae be fund on maist Daith Metal albums.




#Article 474: ASCII (103 words)


American Staundart Cod for Information Interchynge (ASCII), maistlins said  is a chairacter encodin scheme foondit on the English ABC. ASCII cods represents text in computers, communications graith, an ither devices that wirks wi text. Maist modren chairacter encodins—dealin wi mony mair chairacters—haes a historical foond in ASCII.

Wark on ASCII begoud in 1960. The first edeetion o the staundart wis setten furth in 1963,a major reveesion in 1967, an the maist recent update in 1986. Juist nou, it haes cods for 128 chairacters: 33 is nane-prentin, maistlins obsolete control chairacters that affects the wey that text is processed, an 95 is prentable chairacters.




#Article 475: Bible (859 words)


The Bible, sometimes ca'd The Guid Beuk is the name gien tae the gaitherin o scrievins hauden as haly bi Christians. The first pairt o it, cried the Auld Testament is hauden tae be haly bi the Jews an aw. The Bible wis written bi mony scrievers (aiblins aboot fowery) ower a lang period o time (no kenned for certain, but atween the 6t century BC tae the end o the first century AD is the ordinar time-frame).

The Bible is skailed in twa - the first thirty-nine beuks is cried The Auld Testament, an the twinty-sieven ithers is cried The New Testament. The twa Testaments is furder skailed intae beuks, syne chaipters, an thir is syne dividit intae verses. Sae the reference John 3:16, for exemplar, means Gospel o John, chaipter three, verse saxteen. It shoud be merkit that the diveesion intil chaipters an verses isna oreeginal tae the texts, or o ony releegious importance - it is alanerly a reference seestem for tae mak findin verses easier.

The Auld Testament is hauden as haly bi Jews forby Christians. It haes mony kynds o leeteratur in it; fowklair, law, history, musardry, weirdins etc. It is lmaistlins anent the Jewish fowk - their laws, history an releegious warsels. It stairts wi an acoont o the makkin o the yird an ends some time in the fowert century BC efter the Jewish retour frae exile in Persie. Christians jalouses that The Auld Testament haes weirdins anent Jesus thet he foufillt - sic as the steid o his birth, the mainer o his daith an yirdin etc.

The New Testament haes the twinty-sieven screivins hauden as haly bi Christians but no bi Jews. The first fower beuks is cryed The Gospels an tells o the life an lair o Jesus. Forby the Gospels, the New Testament haes The Acts o the Apostles - an acoont o the first thirty year or sae o the Kirk's history; mony letters tae the kirks an indiveeduals bi arrly kirk leaders sic as Saunt Paul an Saunt Jeems. The last beuk o the New Testament is The Beuk o Revelation that is a weirdin anent the end o the warld.

The Auld Testament wis oreeginally scrieven in the Ebreu leid, wi a tait passages in the Aramaic. It wis pitten ower intil Koine Greek atween the third an first century BC bi Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt; syne the Jewish fowk there spakna Ebrua at that time. This translate, cried the Septuagint (or juist LXX) micht hae been the version o the screepturs uised bi some o the screivers o The New Testament.
Maist scholars jalouse that The New Testament wis first scrieven in Koine Greek, the lingua franca o the Mediterranean warld at the time. This wis sae that fowk that warna Jews an coudna unnerstaund Ebreu coud hae access tae the new releegion o Christianity that cam intil bein an growed wi the scrievin o the documents that maks up The New Testament. Gin the documents wis screiven in Koine Greek, they are amang the gey few lang documents in that leid. This is acause eddicated fowk (i.e. the fowk maist like tae scrieve lang prose) tendit tae uise Clessical Greek, jalousin that Koine wis ower common an no suitit for formal scrievin. Some fowk, housome'er, threap that at least some o The New Testament wis composed in Aramaic at first an syne pitten ower intil Greek, syne Jesus an his follaers is for ordinar jaloused tae hae uised Aramaic as their ilka day leid. An auld document bi an early Kirk Faither cried Papias scrieved that Matthew scrieved his Gospel in aither Ebrue or Aramaic, but this is disputit bi maist modren scholars. It is possible, housome'er that syne the early kirk wis multi-lingual, a twa-three versions o the documents in deeferent leids - sic as Greek, Aramaic an Laitin micht hae been patent at the time, an influenced the oncome o ilk ither.

As yet, nae translate o the hail Bible in Scots haes been setten furth. The New Testament haes been pitten ower three tymes. The first wis bi Murdoch Nisbet, wha pit it ower frae John Purvey's Inglis reveesion o Wyclif. This wis duin aboot 1520, but wisna patent until the airly 20t century. Nisbet's translate is the maist muckle o aw the New Testament translators syne haed pitten ower some pairts o the Auld Testament an aw. 
William Wye Smith's last reveesion o his wark wis in 1924. It is a guid translate, but again wis frae the Ingles raither nor the Greek.
The maist kenspeckle translate o The New Testament, housome'er, wis bi William Laughton Lorimer. His wark wis pitten ower straucht frae the Greek an is for ordinar hailed as ane o the maist important warks o Scots prose in mony centuries. 
Forby thon, there haes been twa translates o Ruth, The Saums an Matthew; ane o Genesis, Proverbs an Isaiah an nae less nor five o The Sang o Solomon an ae Selection frae the Gospels Thon's o varyin quality wi maist bein taen frae ithir translates intil Inglis an no frae the oreeginal leids.




#Article 476: Septuagint (382 words)


The Septuagint (or juist LXX) is the name gien tae the pre-Christian translate o the Jewish screepturs frae Ebrue intil Koine Greek. It is threapit bi mony buikmen  weemen that The Septuagint wis the version o The Auld Testament uised bi at least some o the writers o the Christian New Testament.

The translate taks its name frae the Greek wird fer sieventy, syne gaun by auld-threapins wis translate bi seiventy-twa Jewish beukmen (weemen no alloued). Auld-threap hauds that the beukmen wrocht apairt frae ilk ither, ilkane wirkin at pittin the hail corpus o Jewish screepturs intil the Greek. Whan at the end o their darg they compeart their translates they fund that they haed aw written the exact same thing, an sae they kent that their darg wis tiftit bi God. Sieventy wis waled ower seieventy-twa syne it is a roond nummer an multiples o sieven is hauden tae be haly in Jewish thocht (c.f. the makkin o the yird in sieven days, sieven year o fouth an sieven o scant an want amang mony ither exemplars). The Septuagint is aften cried LXX in beukmens' ( weemen's) cutty jottins syne this is sieventy in Roman Nummers.

Gaun by auld-threapins setten oot in The Letter o Aristeas, Ptolmey II Philadelphus o Egypt (285-246 BC) brocht ower the sieventy-twa beukmen tae his kinrick for tae wirk on pittin ower the Pentateuch - the first five beuks o The Auld Testament. Mair likely, accordin tae modren beukmen  weemen, it wis pitten ower atween the third an first centuruies BC, an that there wisna ony ae translate that accoonts for slicht chynges frae the Ebrue texts as weel as slicht deeferences in early quotations frae LXX.

The Septuagint haes aw the thirty-nine beuks o whit we nou ken as The Auld Testament an twa-three apocryphal beuks forby thon. Accordin tae ae wabsteid anent LXX:

Thir Apocryphal beuks includes the histories o the wars atween the Maccabees an the Greek Seleucid Empire in the beuks o the Maccabees, eikins tae the beuks o Esther an Daniel an a tait ithers. Orthodox Jews an Protestant Christians haes niver hauden the Apocryphal beuks tae be canonical (i.e. tifted bi God), but the Papist Kirk an Orthodox Kirk includes some o the beuks o the Apocrypha in their canons.




#Article 477: Sport (235 words)


A sport is an organised, competitive, entertainin, an skilful activity requirin commitment, strategy, an fair play, in which a winner an loser can be defined bi objective means. Generally speakin, a sport is a gemme based in pheesical athleticism. Activities sic as buird gemmes an caird gemmes are whiles classifee'd as mind sports, but strictly speakin sport bi itsel refers tae some pheesical activity. Non-competitive activities mey an aa qualify, for example tho joggin or playin catch are uisually clessifee'd as forms o recreation, thay mey an aa be informally cried sports due tae thair similarity tae competitive gemmes.

Sports are govrened bi a set o rules or customs. Pheesical events sic as scorin goals or crossin a line first aften define the result o a sport. Housomeivver, the degree o skill an performance in some sports sic as divin, dressage an feegur skeitchin is judged accordin tae well-defined criteria. This is in contrast wi ither judged activities sic as beauty pageants an body biggin, whaur skill daes no hae tae be shawn an the criteria are no as well defined.

Records are kept an updatit for maist sports at the heichest levels, while failurs an accomplishments are widely annoonced in sport news. Sports are maist aften played juist for fun or for the semple fact that fowk need exercise tae stay in guid pheesical condeetion. Housomeivver, professional sport is a major soorce o entertainnment.




#Article 478: New Testament (1164 words)


The New Testament is the seicont pairt o the Christian Bible, an haes the maist important scrievins o that releegion. It tells the story an lair o Jesus Christ, the first thirty year or sae o the early kirk, as weel as haein letters tae the kirks an indiveeduals that's the basis for maist Christian moral lair.

The New Testament is skailed intae beuks that can be pitten intae the follaein curns:

Ilkane o the Gospels tells the story o the life an lair o Jesus, the Jewish chiel that cam tae be seen bi the Christians as the Son o God, the Messiah. The Gospels isna biographies as we wad unnerstaund the term the day, but they dae gie us awmaist aw the information we hae anent the life an sayins o Jesus. Gin a body leuks tae the Gospels as a modren biography, they are like tae be dozent bi, for example, the chronological settin oot o things, syne they hae sae muckle a theological importance as they dae narrative importance. The parables, sermons an ferlies o Jesus is setten doun in thir beuks, alang wi the kenspeckle accoonts o his birth, daith an raisin up. 

Tradeetion hauds that the Gospels war scrieven bi the fowk that's names is eikit tae thaim. Modren scholars is dividit in opeenion as tae wha actually scrieved thaim. It haes been merkit bi scholars syne the langsyne that Mathew, Mark an Luke are gey seemilar, while John haes a mair disteenctive air aboot it. Sae the first three thegither is aften cried The Synoptic Gospels, an twa-three theories haes kythed anent their authorskip an order o scrievin.
The maist common theory thir days is that Mark wis scrieven first, an the authors o Matthew an Luke uised it a soorce, alang wi anither soorce syne tint that haes been cried Q (frae the German Quelle = soorce in Scots). This is acause the three skares muckle material thegither, Matthew an Luke skares a wheen material that's in Mark an aw.
John is for ordinar jaloused tae hae been scrieven last, tho some scholars, sic as CH Dodd, haes sugeestit it micht hae been the first, gin it wis scrieven first in Aramaic, an no in Greek as they think it micht hae been.

For the maist pairt this beuk tells o the first thirty year or sae o the early kirk. It chairts the oncome o meesion darg, orginisation an guideship efter the daith an raisin up o Jesus. In Acks we see the new releegion stairtin tae leuk outwi the Jews an taewart the Gentiles in its meesion darg, unner the guideship o Saunt Paul.

Tradeetion threaps that Acks wis scrieved bi Luke, wha scrieved the Gospel that beirs his name an aw. Maist modren scholars grees that they war screiven bi the same chiel due tae style, phrases etc.

Thir beuks wir jaloused tae be letters sent tae the kirks an indiveedual fowk bi Saunt Paul (see ablo). As he wis ane o the maist important fowk in the early kirk, his letters (an his beliefs, that's setten oot in thae letters) wir unco influential in the biggin o Christian morals, the organisation o the kirk an in mony ither pairts o the releegion forby thon. Mony o the maist kenspeckle pairts an ideas o screeptur can be fund in the Pauline Epistles sic as the sae cried Roman Gate (Romans) the celebratit passage anent Christian luve (I Cor. 13:1-13) an the Airmour o God (Eph. 6:10-18).

Aw o thir screivins war at ae time threapit tae hae been bi Saunt Paul, tho his authorskip o some o thaim is disputit the nou. It shoud be merkit that e'en syne early times fowk haes doutit that Paul scrieved Hebrews - an in fact it is naewhaur threapit in the letter as it is in the lave. Mair oot ower, the muckle deeferences in style atween Hebrews an the lave o the Pauline Epsitles leads the muckle feck o scholars (specially syne the Reformation) tae draw that it wisna scrieven bi Paul ava. Paul seems tae hae dictatit his letters tae scribes, an in some letters maks a pynt o scrievin his ain salutation.

The Ordinar Epistles is the name gien tae the curn o letters no jaloused tae hae been scrieven bi Paul, but bi ithir leaders o the early kirk. Like Paul's letters, they deal wi ordinar Christian issues (sic as the Faith/ Warks issue that kythes in James) as weel as issues mair relevent tae heresies etc. o the time that they war scrieven in (sic as II John).

Thir scrievins war bi tradeetion thocht tae hae been scrieven bi the fowk that's names ais eikit tae thaim, tho ance mair modren scholars disna gree wi ilk ithir as tae whither or no this is true. James an Jude wis jaloused tae be hauf-brithers o Jesus. It isna certain whither the John that the the letters is attribute is the same John that the The Gospel o John an Revelation is attribute, tho that haes lang been assumed bi some fowk. It is true that they hae certain language featurs in common - tho Revelation is screiven in raither ill Greek that leads maist scholars tae draw that it wisna screiven bi the same chiel that scrieved the letters (see ablo).

This beuk is anent the End Times, an is unco teuch tae unnerstaund. The style that it wis scrieven in, the sae cried Apocalypse genre (that, in fact, comes frae the Greek meanin revelation, or unkiverin). It haes unco strynge seembolic language an metaphors that arna easy tae unnerstaund the day, tho it wad likely hae been clearer tae the oreeginal readers.

Ance mair attributit tae a chiel cried John, but John wis a common name amang the early Christians, an identifeein him is haird. Mair nor twa-three fowk haes been pitten forrit bi scholars (John the Apostle, son o Zebedee; John Mark an a skuggy chiel cried John the Presbyter is amang thaim maist aften pitten forrit) , an ithers hauds that the beuk wis scrieven bi mair nor ae chiel at mair nor ae time. Whit is certaint is that the Greek uised in the scrievin o Revelation isna awfu guid, specially whan compeart tae that uised in The Gospel o John that haes led mony scholars tae draw that they warna scrieven bi the same chiel. Housome'er fowk that threaps that they war scrieven bi the same chiel pynts oot that the uiss o scribes wis common at the time (see the jottin anent the Pauline Epistles abuin) an sugeests that John (whit iver ane scrieved the Gospel) micht hae uised a scribe for his Gospel, but syne he seems tae scrieve that he is in exile at the time o scrievin (Rev. 1: 9) this micht no hae been an option whan he pit doun Revelation an sae he haed tae uise his ain, less guid, Greek.




#Article 479: The Star-Spangled Banner (103 words)


The Starn-Spangled Banner () is the naitional anthem o the Unitit States. The leerics come frae a poem written in 1814 bi Francis Scott Key durin the War o 1812 as the Breetish wis bombardin Fort McHenry. For ordinar juist the first verse is sung.

The poem wis set tae the tuin o a weel-kent Breetish drinkin sang, written bi John Stafford Smith for the Anacreontic Society, a Lunnon social club. The Anacreontic Song wis awreadies weel-kent in the Unitit States an set tae sindry leerics. Set tae Key's poem an renamed, The Starn-Spangled Banner wad suin become a kenspeckle American patriotic sang.




#Article 480: Donald Dewar (152 words)


Donald Campbell Dewar (21 August 1937 – 11 October 2000) wis the  First Meenister o Scotland frae 1999 til he dee'd in 2000. He wis the first body tae haud the poseetion o First Meenister efter the estaiblishment o the Scots Pairlament in 1999.

Dewar wis first electit tae Wastmeenster in 1966, afore bein made Secretar o State for Scotland in 1997 follaein the election o a Labour govrenment unner Tony Blair.

The inaugural First Meenister o the Scots Pairlament creatit bi the Scotland Act 1998, Donald Dewar is kent as the Faither o the Naition, or at laest as the faither o devolved govrenment. In his time as Secretar o State for Scotland, his acts an campaigns wis instrumental in gettin Scots devolution. His cutty term in the office he haed helpit tae creaut, endit suddent whan he dee'd o a brain haemorrhage.

A braw statue o Dewar staunds in Glesga.




#Article 481: Black metal (1071 words)


Black metal (or Blek Metal) is an extreme kynd o hivy metal muisic. Common traits is fest tempos, skreicht vocals, heichlie distortit guitars pley'd wi tremolo poukin, blast baet drummin, raw recordin, an unconventional sang makup.

Durin the 1980s, a whein o thrash metal baunds shapit a prototyp for black metal. This first wave included baunds sic as Venom, Bathory, Hellhammer, Celtic Frost an Sarcófago. A seicont wave cam aboot in the aerlie 1990s, spearheidit bi Norse baunds sic as Mayhem, Burzum, Darkthrone, Immortal an Emperor. Thon muisic scene fordert the black metal styl intil a distink genre.

Black metal has aften been met wi ill-will frae mainstream cultur, maistilins due til the misanthropic an anti-Kristian staundpynt o monie airtists. Mair ootower, a whein o the genre's pioneers hae been linkit wi kirk brennins, murther or Neo-Nazism. For thir reasons an ithers, black metal is aft seen as an unnergrund kynd o muisic. 

Black Metal is forordnar seen as cumin in twa waves. Tho monie fans wad nou threap that the seicont wave is nou endit, nae defined thrid wave haes yit taen place. As wi aw muisical historical terms, the waves owerlap sumwhit.

The term First Wave meins the curn o baunds that wis gey influential in the makkin o whit wad syn cum ti be Black Metal. Monie o thir baunds stairtit oot as Thrash metal baunds, an syn cam ti be Black Metal - in fak sum fowk threaps that the first Black Metal albums wis littil mair nor badlie produced Thrash. The album maist aften luikit til as the first Black Metal album wis Black Metal bi Venom. Tho the muisic wis maistlins thrash, the harsk vocals, production, leerics an eemagrie wis distink frae the lave o the metal scene at the tym. Anithir baund aften seen as unco influential in the aerlie yeirs o Black Metal wis Bathory, frae Swaden. Bathory wis the first ti jyn elements o Norse meethologie ti Black Metal, an sae is cried Viking Metal bi sum fowk. Thar war ither baunds at the tym forby thon twa that wis unco influential in the oncum o the eemagrie an soond o aerlie black metal, sic as Hellhammer, Celtic Frost an Mercyful Fate. 

Wi the ryz o a Norrowegian baunds sic as Emperor, Immortal, Burzum an Mayhem it becam clear that the centur o the muivment wis nou Norawa. The muisic stairtit ti muive furder frae Thrash metal an mair intil its ain, baith muisicalie an philosophicalie. A strang anti-Kristian strynd wis nou merkit, an sum o the baunds wis takkin a faur-richt airt leericalie an ideologicalie. Baunds that didna tak in sum kynd o extreme ideologie wis creeticized bi Black Metal leaders an fans as no bein a richt pairt o the scene. Maist fowk nou sees the seicont wave as bein throu, but nae properlie defined third wave haes taen place. Tho new trends daes kyth frae tym ti tym this haesna happent sae aften as til indicate a shift til a new styl o Black Metal that is generalie acceptit bi maist fans; that is hou the seicont wave becam distink frae the first, hou the first becam distik frae Thrash metal an sae on. Monie o the seicont wave baunds, sic as Immortal an Emporer skailt but haes syn cum back thegither. 

Maist Black Metal haes at least a tait o the follaein featurs:

Black Metal haes monie ideological concepts eikit til it, but the follaein twa is awmaist universal. The spellins o the wirds Tr00 an Kvlt is obviouslie corruptions o the Inglis wirds True an Cult, but is awmaist aye spelt in thair modifee'd versions bi Black Metallers.

Tr00 is the idea o stayin leal til the vailies o Black Metal, baith muisicalie an ideologicalie. This is ae raison for the appearent stagnation an want o muisical progression in Black Metal i.e. baunds dinna ettil ti muive ower faur frae the basic Black Metal template syn that wad be un-Tr00. In practiss, this meins haudin wi the lo-fi production (see abuin) muisical leemitation that Black Metal haes creatit for itsel as weil as haudin til extreme ideologies an philosophies, forordnar anent poleetics, releegion, attitudes til ither genres an baunds etc.

The concept o Kvlt is sib til the concept o Tr00. This is mair or less anent baunds ettilin ti byd unnergrund sae faur as thay can, for til evyt sellin oot an becumin un-Tr00. This is ae raison for Black Metal baunds playin sae few live shaws. For ti stay kvlt, baunds wul aften leemit the nummers o thair records pitten furth, refuise ti syn wi labels an juist pit furth demos.

Black Metal haes aye been controversial, mainlie acause it is sae extreme. The veeolence o the scene reach'd its hicht in the 1990s, whan thar wis several kirk-brennins an murthers in Norawa linkit ti Black Metal baunds an muisickers. In 1991 Mayhem lilter Dead (real name - Per Yngve Ohlin) kilt himsel, eftir that a fotae o his deid corp wis uised as the kivver o a Mayhem buitleg album bi thair guitarist, Euronymous (real name - Øystein Aarseth) an the follaein yeir Faust (real name - Bård Eithun) o Emperor kilt a man in Lillehammer, Norawa. In 1993, Varg Vikernes killt Euronymous , ane o the raisins appearantlie bein that he haed uised the pictur o Dead as an album kiver - tho argie-bargie ower ryalties frae Euronymous' label, racism (syn Aarseth wis haulf-Sami), pouer strauchil (the twa wis leaders o the scene at the tym) an mair raisons haes been pitten forrit. Vikernes himsel haes threap'd it wis in sel-defenss that he killt Aarseth, but he haes chynged his storie a twa-thrie tyms. Atwein 1992 an 1993, elievin Norrowegian kirks wis brent doun, monie o thaim wis twa-thrie hunder yeir auld. 

Tho the veeolence o the scene haes caum'd doun til a mukkil extent syn the aerlie 1990s, assaults etc. aye gae on. Gorgoroth lilter Gaahl (real name - Kristian Eivind Espedal) wis jylt for the ae yeir in 2001, an agin for nyn month in 2002, for exemplar, baith tyms fer brutal assaults.

Aw the whyl, thar is aye controversie ower the leerics o Black Metal, tho thir days mair sae anent racist an ither faur-richt leerics nor Sautanist anes. Stil an on, it shud be merkit that baunds wi sic faur-richt ideologies represents a gey smaw strynd o Black Metal.




#Total Article count: 480
#Total Word count: 199677